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Topic:Vertebrae
The vertebrae in horses form a critical component of the equine skeletal system, providing structural support and facilitating movement. Horses possess a series of vertebrae categorized into five regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and caudal. These vertebrae protect the spinal cord and serve as attachment points for muscles and ligaments, contributing to the horse's posture and locomotion. Variations in vertebral anatomy can influence a horse's performance and susceptibility to certain conditions. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, biomechanics, and clinical implications of vertebral health in horses.
Comparison of medial and lateral ultrasound-guided approaches for periarticular injection of the thoracolumbar intervertebral facet joints in horses. To compare ultrasound-guided lateral and medial approaches for periarticular injections of the thoracolumbar intervertebral facet joints (IFJ). Methods: Experimental cadaveric study. Methods: Adult equine cadavers (n=4). Methods: IFJ (T12-T13 to L5-L6) were identified by ultrasound (transducer perpendicular to the spine axis) and insertion of a 13 cm, 18 g spinal needle monitored until bone contact using medial (right side) and lateral (left side) approaches. Number of needle insertions at each site, needle repositioning, and insertion depth were recorded. On bone contact 2 mL latex was ...
Cervical vertebral canal endoscopy in the horse: intra- and post operative observations. Despite modern medical diagnostic imaging, it is not possible to identify reliably the exact location of spinal cord compression in horses with cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM). Vertebral canal endoscopy has been successfully used in man and a technique for cervical vertebral canal endoscopy (CVCE) has been described in equine cadavers. Objective: To determine the feasibility and safety of CVCE in healthy mature horses. Methods: Six healthy mature horses were anaesthetised. A flexible videoendoscope was subsequently introduced via the atlanto-occipital space into the epidural spac...
Transient cauda equina syndrome related to a sacral schwannoma with cauda equine compression after a lumbar epidural block -A case report-. A 53-year-old man had chronic low back and leg pain for four years without any history of trauma or neurological manifestations. There was a reduction in symptoms after a lumbar epidural block. Two hours later after the procedure, the patient complained of perineal numbness and lower extremity weakness. The neurological evaluation revealed loss of sensation in the saddle area and the posterior aspect of the leg. The deep-tendon reflexes were decreased in the leg. The patient was unable to urinate. The MRI revealed a schwannoma at the S3 level of the sacral spine with cauda equina compression. ...
The 3D anatomy of the cervical articular process joints in the horse and their topographical relationship to the spinal cord. REASONS FOR STUDY: Detailed anatomy of the equine cervical articular process joints (APJs) has received little attention in the literature and yet disorders of this joint have been linked to spinal cord compression resulting in severe clinical signs such as ataxia and weakness. This study aimed to describe the 3D anatomy of the APJ in relation to the spinal cord in the horse. Objective: Artificial distension of the APJ causes the joint pouches to extend into the vertebral canal, with the potential for APJ effusion to cause spinal cord compressive disease. Methods: Six cadaveric necks (C1-C7) o...
Ultrasonographic findings in the lumbosacral joint of 43 horses with no clinical signs of back pain or hindlimb lameness. The transrectal ultrasonographic appearance of the lumbosacral joint was assessed in 43 horses with no history or clinical evidence of back pain or hindlimb lameness. In the majority of horses (34/43, 79.1%) the lumbosacral disc had uniform or mildly heterogeneous echogenicity. However, variation in the ultrasonographic appearance of the lumbosacral joint was also identified, including hyperechogenic regions within the lumbosacral disc with or without an acoustic shadow, and mild or moderate irregularity of the opposing surfaces of the last lumbar and the first sacral vertebral bodies. Marked ...
An in vitro biomechanical comparison of a locking compression plate fixation and kerf cut cylinder fixation for ventral arthrodesis of the fourth and the fifth equine cervical vertebrae. To (1) define mechanical properties in flexion, extension, and left lateral bending of cadaveric equine 4th and 5th cervical (C4-C5) articulations, (2) compare biomechanical properties of C4-C5 when stabilized with a kerf cut cylinder (KCC) compared with a ventrally placed 4.5 mm locking compression plate (LCP). Methods: In vitro biomechanical investigation. Methods: Cadaveric adult equine cervical vertebral columns (n=54). Methods: Cervical vertebrae aged by horse dentition and size measured from radiographs were divided into 3 age groups then randomly allocated to 3 groups. The C4-C5 articul...
Observer agreement study of cervical-vertebral ratios in horses. Different examiners or the same examiner were observed at different times producing slightly different results when obtaining cervical-vertebral ratios. If the difference is substantial, then measurement variability would have an important impact of radiographic interpretation. Objective: To quantify agreement and repeatability of these measurements. Methods: An observer agreement study was performed using 75 horses. Measurements were made at C3-4 and C6-7 by a board-certified radiologist and an imaging resident. Intra- and interobserver agreement was quantified using Bland-Altman plots. Repea...
Radiographic anatomy of the articular process joints of the caudal cervical vertebrae in the horse on lateral and oblique projections. Plain radiography is the standard imaging technique for investigation of diseases associated with the articular process joints (APJ) of the caudal neck; however, the radiographic anatomy of these structures on both lateral and oblique radiographic projections has not previously been described in detail. Objective: To determine the optimal technique for obtaining oblique radiographs of the APJ of the caudal cervical vertebrae (C4-5, C5-6 and C6-7) and to provide a detailed description of their normal radiographic appearance, on both lateral and oblique radiographic projections. Methods: Radiopa...
Accuracy of ultrasound-guided injections of thoracolumbar articular process joints in horses: a cadaveric study. Arthrosis of the articular process joints (APJs) in the caudal thoracolumbar region of horses may cause back pain and subsequent reduced performance or lameness. Ultrasound-guided injections of the APJs of the equine back have been described only briefly in the literature. Objective: To evaluate factors affecting the accuracy of intra-articular injections of the APJs in the caudal thoracolumbar region. Methods: One-hundred-and-fifty-four injections with blue dye were performed on APJs including the T14-L6 region in 12 horses subjected to euthanasia for reasons unrelated to back problems. The b...
Location of radiological lesions of the thoracolumbar column in French trotters with and without signs of back pain. The radiographs of 102 French trotters presented with signs of back pain were reviewed retrospectively, and a control group of 16 French trotters without back pain was analysed. The age, sex, type of race, number of starts, earnings and index of performance were recorded. Radiological evaluation was performed from the 14th thoracic (T14) to the third lumbar (L3) vertebra. Impingement of the spinous processes (ISP), periarticular proliferation of synovial intervertebral articulations (PP-SIA) and sclerosis of SIA (S-SIA) were located and graded. Radiological lesions were identified in 10 (62 pe...
Nuclear scintigraphic assessment of the thoracolumbar synovial intervertebral articulations. The results of nuclear scintigraphic examination of the thoracolumbar synovial intervertebral articulations (facet joints) have to date been poorly documented. Objective: To establish an objective scintigraphic grading system for the facet joints; to investigate the relationship between the presence or absence of clinical signs of back pain and increased radiopharmaceutical uptake (IRU); and to compare the results of scintigraphy and radiography. Methods: Nuclear scintigraphic images of the 13th thoracic (T13) to first lumbar (L1) vertebrae were graded subjectively (visual assessment of the im...
Radiographic quantification of tracheal dimensions of the normal Thoroughbred horse. Radiographic measurement of tracheal dimensions in the horse may be useful in evaluating upper and lower respiratory tract conditions due to the gradient of pressure changes between these areas. Lateral radiographs of the trachea of 15 normal sedated Thoroughbred horses were made at inspiration and expiration and magnification-corrected mean airway heights measured were, respectively: larynx: 5.89 and 5.86 cm; trachea at the third cervical vertebra (C3): 4.17 and 4.04cm; at the fifth cervical vertebra (C5): 3.62 and 3.59 cm; at the first thoracic vertebra (T1): 3.4 and 3.23cm; and carina: 3.85...
A pilot in vitro biomechanical comparison of locking compression plate fixation and kerf-cut cylinder fixation for ventral fusion of fourth and fifth equine cervical vertebrae. The mechanical properties of equine cervical vertebrae joined by implants have not yet been reported. Locking compression plates (LCP) may provide a useful alternative system to the commonly used stainless steel kerf-cut cylinders (KCC) currently used for fixation of cervical vertebrae in horses. Objective: The objectives of this study were to establish a method for biomechanical testing of equine C4-C5 articulations and to compare the biomechanical properties of cadaveric spines stabilised with KCC and LCP. Methods: Twenty-four equine cadaveric cervical spines were size measured from radiogra...
Scintigraphic pattern of uptake of 99mTechnetium by the cervical vertebrae of sound horses. Lateral scintigraphic images of the necks of 12 show jumping horses, 12 thoroughbreds and 12 French trotters were evaluated. Custom-written automatic analysis software was used to segment the regions of the articular processes and vertebral symphyses from C3 to C7 and to calculate their mean radiopharmaceutical uptakes. The uptakes by the two sides of these sound horses were not significantly different, and the uptakes by the vertebral symphyses and articular processes were also similar in the three groups of horses, considering each vertebral level separately. In the thoroughbred race horses,...
Ventral locking compression plate for treatment of cervical stenotic myelopathy in a 3-month-old warmblood foal. To report a novel technique for cervical vertebral fusion in a foal with cervical vertebral malformation (CVM). Methods: Case report. Methods: A 3-month-old Warmblood filly with ataxia, weakness, and stenotic myelopathy at the level of the articulation of the 6th (C6) and 7th (C7) cervical vertebrae had a 7-hole broad locking compression plate (LCP) applied to the ventral aspect of C6 and C7 using seven 5.0-mm locking screws. Revision surgery was required to replace the self-drilling screws, which had migrated, with longer non self-drilling screws. Fusion and growth of the vertebrae were monit...
Back kinematics of healthy trotting horses during treadmill versus over ground locomotion. Treadmill locomotion is frequently used for training of sport horses, for diagnostic purposes and for research. Identification of the possible biomechanical differences and similarities between the back movement during treadmill (T) and over ground (O) locomotion is essential for the correct interpretation of research results. Objective: To compare the kinematics of the thoracolumbar vertebral column in treadmill and over ground locomotion in healthy horses. Methods: Six sound Dutch Warmblood horses trotted on a T and O during 10 s at their own preferred velocity (mean +/- s.d. 3.6 +/- 0.3 m/s...
The relationship between range of motion of lumbosacral flexion-extension and canter velocity of horses on a treadmill. Research into kinematics of the healthy equine back, has been performed in the walk and trot. This study focuses on back kinematics during canter, over a range of velocities. Flexion extension (FE) movements in canter are greatest in the lumbosacral (LS) region. Previous research has focused on canter velocity of 7 m/s; therefore quantification of LS kinematics at varying velocities is required to understand LS functions in equine locomotion. Objective: Range of flexion-extension movement through the lumbosacral joint increases with increasing velocity. Methods: Six Thoroughbred horses (mean a...
Conservative treatment of a comminuted cervical fracture in a racehorse. The 'classical' or 'Hangman' neck fracture involves the odontoid peg (process) of the second cervical vertebra (C2), and is described as an axial, dens or odontoid peg fracture in both the veterinary and human literature. Possible surgical treatment in both foals and adult horses requires a technique that allows decompression, anatomical alignment and stabilisation of the odontoid fracture. A limited number of surgical cases in foals have been reported in literature, but never in an adult horse. A mature Irish Thoroughbred racehorse was diagnosed with a type 2a odontoid peg fracture. Clinical ...
Assessment of the utility of using intra- and intervertebral minimum sagittal diameter ratios in the diagnosis of cervical vertebral malformation in horses. Cervical vertebral malformation is one of the most common causes of ataxia in horses. The most important factor in the diagnosis of cervical vertebral malformation is the identification of cervical vertebral canal stenosis, but published data for minimum sagittal diameter ratios in adult horses are only available for C4-C7 intravertebral sites. Intra- and intervertebral sagittal diameter ratios at C2-C7 were evaluated in 26 ataxic horses, for which a complete clinical and neuropathological evaluation was undertaken. Eight of these horses were diagnosed with cervical vertebral malformation. In ...
Ventral meningomyelocele in a German warmblood foal. A ventral meningomyelocele was found in a five week old, male German warmblood foal which exhibited central nervous symptoms. This rare malformation in horses may be caused by absent or defective fusion of vertebral bodies leading to herniation of the spinal cord and meninges with subsequent degenerative alterations of the spinal cord.
Confirmed and presumptive cervical vertebral compressive myelopathy in older horses: a retrospective study (1992-2004). Cervical vertebral compressive myelopathy (CVCM) is a common cause of myelopathy in horses aged 6 months to 4 years. Little information is available regarding the types of lesions, treatment, and outcomes in horses with CVCM that are > or =4 years old. Methods: Twenty-two affected horses (10 with a confirmed diagnosis of CVCM and 12 presumptive cases) and 210 contemporaneous control horses. Methods: Horses > or =4 years old that were diagnosed with CVCM between January 1992 and January 2004 were identified from medical records at Texas A&M University and the University of Florida. Data analyze...
Tri-level surgical treatment of cervical spinal cord compression in a Thoroughbred yearling. A Thoroughbred yearling was presented with neurological, radiographic, and myelographic abnormalities consistent with cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy. Surgical correction was performed by using ventral cervical interbody fusion at 3 intervertebral spaces. The patient recovered uneventfully from surgery. The neurological status remained unchanged initially; however, significant improvement was noted 37 weeks postoperatively. Un Thoroughbred d’un an a été présenté avec des anomalies neurologiques, radiographiques et myélographiques compatibles avec une myélopathie sténosée des ...
Effects of vertebral mobilization and manipulation on kinematics of the thoracolumbar region. To measure passive spinal movements induced during dorsoventral mobilization and evaluate effects of induced pain and spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) on passive vertebral mobility in standing horses. Methods: 10 healthy adult horses. Methods: Baseline vertical displacements, applied force, stiffness, and frequency of the oscillations were measured during dorsoventral spinal mobilization at 5 thoracolumbar intervertebral sites. As a model for back pain, fixation pins were temporarily implanted into the dorsal spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae at 2 of the intervertebral sites. Vertebral ...
The effect of head and neck position on the thoracolumbar kinematics in the unridden horse. In many equestrian activities a specific position of head and/or neck is required that is dissimilar to the natural position. There is controversy about the effects of these positions on locomotion pattern, but few quantitative data are available. Objective: To quantify the effects of 5 different head and neck positions on thoracolumbar kinematics of the horse. Methods: Kinematics of 7 high level dressage horses were measured walking and trotting on an instrumented treadmill with the head and neck in the following positions: HNP2 = neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3...
Efficacy of tiludronate in the treatment of horses with signs of pain associated with osteoarthritic lesions of the thoracolumbar vertebral column. To evaluate the efficacy of tiludronate for the treatment of horses with signs of pain associated with lesions of the thoracolumbar vertebral column. Methods: 29 horses with clinical manifestations of pain associated with lesions of the thoracolumbar vertebral column and abnormal radiographic findings indicative of osteoarthritis of the articular processes-synovial intervertebral joints. Methods: Horses were initially examined in accordance with a standardized protocol, which included radiographic, ultrasonographic, and scintigraphic examinations. Fifteen horses were randomly assigned to recei...
Onchocercosis of an intervertebral joint capsule causing cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy in a horse. A novel case where onchocercosis was identified as a cause of cervical myelopathy in the horse is described. A 15-year-old Connemara mare was euthanized due to progressive locomotion disturbance. Postmortem examination revealed soft-tissue swelling in the intervertebral joint capsule of C6-7 with narrowing of the vertebral canal. On light microscopy, axonopathy was pronounced in the corresponding segment of the spinal cord. Fibrous tissue and eosinophilic granulomas were found in the joint capsule, together with parasites identified histologically as Onchocerca sp.
Imaging features of discospondylitis in two horses. Two horses with discospondylitis are described with emphasis on the imaging modalities used and their contribution to the final diagnosis and outcome. Radiographic findings were vertebral endplate lysis with sclerosis in both horses, with additional vertebral subluxation and ventral spondylosis in one horse. Ultrasonographic findings included vertebral malalignment and obliteration of the intervertebral disc by spondylotic bone in one horse and irregular endplates, a widened disc space, a hypoechoic paravertebral abscess and hypoechoic, atrophic adjacent musculature with loss of linear fiber p...
