Veterinary medicine for horses encompasses the study and application of medical practices to diagnose, treat, and prevent diseases in equine species. This field involves a comprehensive understanding of equine anatomy, physiology, pathology, and pharmacology. Veterinary practitioners employ a range of diagnostic tools and therapeutic interventions to address health issues in horses, including lameness, gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory conditions, and infectious diseases. Preventative care, such as vaccination and deworming programs, is also a significant aspect of equine veterinary medicine. This page gathers peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore various aspects of veterinary medicine as it pertains to horses, including advancements in diagnostic techniques, treatment protocols, and preventive health strategies.
Church S, Middleton DJ.Two horses, presented for investigation of chronic weight loss despite normal to increased feed intake, had flat oral glucose absorption curves, suggesting malabsorption. The cause of the apparent malabsorption was not evident grossly or on light microscopic examination of the intestinal tract. Both horses survived long term and at follow-up examination had regained weight and their capacity to absorb glucose. These cases illustrate that flat glucose absorption curves may occur in horses with no obvious intestinal lesions, that they may revert to normal and that the results of these tests shou...
Seahorn TL, Beadle RE, McGorum BC, Marley CL.To determine whether horses with summer pasture-associated obstructive pulmonary disease (SPAOPD) have increased concentrations of antigen-specific IgG and IgE in tracheal lavage fluid, compared with values in clinically normal horses. Methods: 8 horses (6 females, 2 geldings; 6 Quarter Horses, 2 Appaloosas), 14 to 23 years old and with previous diagnosis of SPAOPD, served as the principal group; 8 horses (2 females, 6 geldings; 1 Quarter Horse, 7 Thoroughbreds), 6 to 9 years old, with no evidence of respiratory tract disease, served as the control group. Methods: Data were collected twice dur...
Cauvin ER, Munroe GA, Boswell J, Boyd JS.This study was undertaken to establish the gross anatomy and the ultrasonographic appearance of the carpal digital flexor tendon sheath (carpal sheath) and the palmar carpal region in normal horses. The isolated forelimbs from 15 horses were used to study the morphology of the sheath and associated structures, including a detailed study of the location of the main blood vessels and nerves in that region. These limbs and the forelimbs of five live, sound horses were also examined ultrasonographically. The examination yielded good soft tissue detail of the tendons and ligaments, synovial and per...
Swardson CJ, Lichtenstein DL, Wang S, Montelaro RC, Kociba GJ.To characterize infection of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) with equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) by determining virus production, effects on viability, and induction of cytokines. Methods: BMDM obtained from bone marrow of 6 clinically normal adult horses. Methods: BMDM were infected with EIAV at a multiplicity of infection of 8. Cell viability, percentage of cells with detectable viral protein, reverse transcriptase activity, and concentrations of infective virus (focus-forming units/ml), interleukin 6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha were measured in culture supernatant samples...
Cook G, Papich MG, Roberts MC, Bowman KF.To determine the i.v. pharmacokinetics of cisapride and measure systemic absorption after rectal administration. Methods: 5 healthy adult mares (380 to 610 kg). Methods: Cisapride was administered, i.v., at a dosage of 0.1 mg/kg of body weight. In the same horses, after a 1-week washout period, cisapride was administered rectally at a dosage of 1 mg/kg by mixing crushed tablets with propylene glycol and administering the mixture into the rectum. After each drug administration, a series of blood samples were collected. Plasma was obtained and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography t...
Wohlsein P, Pohlenz JF, Davidson FL, Salt JS, Hamblin C.The distribution of viral antigen was studied in various tissues of three ponies, aged 3-4 years, infected experimentally with a virulent strain of African horse sickness virus (AHSV) serotype 4. Tissues were collected from the animals in the terminal stage of the peracute form of the disease and from one noninfected horse, included as a control. A polyclonal antibody with specificity for AHSV, plus the nonstructural protein NS2, was used in a sensitive avidin-biotin-peroxidase-complex (ABC) method performed on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections. AHSV antigen was located primari...
Borchers K, Frölich K.Twenty-one blood samples of free-ranging mountain zebras (Equus zebra) from Namibia were tested for equine herpesvirus (EHV-1, -2, -3, -4) specific antibodies by immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and neutralization test (NT). Additionally, type-specific nested polymerase chain reactions (nested PCR) were employed for detection of EHV-1, -2 and -4 DNA. Equine herpesvirus-1 antibodies were detected by IFA in all zebras, while only seven serum samples contained EHV-4 IFA antibodies. Sera with high IFA antibodies also were found to neutralize EHV-1 and -4. Furthermore, 20 zebras were EHV-2 seropositi...
Keg PR, van Weeren PR, Back W, Barneveld A.The influence of the force applied and its period of application on the outcome of the flexion test of the distal forelimb was investigated in a group of eight sound horses. The degree of lameness after the flexion test was scored by a standard clinical classification, and by measuring the angle of maximum fetlock extension by means of the infrared light-based MacReflex gait analysis system. There was a good correlation between the clinical score and this electronically recorded kinematic parameter (r = 0.96). Both the force applied and the period of application affected the outcome of the tes...
Saetang T, Treamwattana N, Suttijitpaisal P, Ratanabanangkoon K.A quantitative comparison was made on the fractionation of pepsin-digested horse antivenoms by ammonium sulfate (AS) fractional precipitation and ion-exchange chromatography on Q-Sepharose. In the precipitation process, pepsin digested horse anti-Naja kaouthia serum was precipitated by 30% saturated AS followed by 50% saturated AS. The recovery of antibody activity [as measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) against the cobra postsynaptic neurotoxin 3] from the 30-50% saturated AS precipitate was 53% with a 1.93-fold purification. For the chromatographic process, the behavior ...
Hawkins JF, Tulleners EP, Ross MW, Evans LH, Raker CW.The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of laryngoplasty on racing performance and to determine if any of the following variables had a significant effect on outcome: breed (Thoroughbred v Standardbred), endoscopic grade of laryngeal function, ventriculectomy versus no ventriculectomy, type of prosthetic suture used, and number of prostheses placed. Methods: Retrospective study of laryngoplasty with or without ventriculectomy for treatment of left laryngeal hemiplegia in racehorses between 1986 and 1993. Methods: 230 horses (174 Thoroughbreds, 56 Standardbreds). Methods: The med...
Bleyaert HF, Brown MP, Bonenclark G, Bailey JE.The purpose of this report was to describe the use of laparoscopy as a method of treatment for abdominal adhesions in the horse. Methods: Unilateral ovariectomy for removal of a granulosa cell tumor was performed through a diagonal paramedian approach in a 14-year-old Arabian mare. Progressive incisional swelling and hemorrhage culminated in acute incisional dehiscence with herniation of ileum on the sixth postoperative day. Septic peritonitis that responded to parenteral antibiotic therapy was identified 7 days after hernia repair. Seven days later, the mare had signs of abdominal pain, and a...
Bouré L, Marcoux M, Laverty S.The purposes of this study were to develop a technique of paralumbar fossa laparoscopic ovariectomy using Endoloop ligatures and to avoid a laparotomy incision for ovary removal by using a 33-mm diameter muscle spreader trocar-cannula unit. Methods: Seven mares. Methods: Bilateral laparoscopic ovariectomy was performed under general anesthesia in two horses and under neuroleptanalgesia and local anesthesia in five standing mares. Ovaries were approached from the ipsilateral paralumbar fossa through two portal sites located in the paralumbar fossa and a third between the 17th and 18th ribs. Ins...
Shin EK, Perryman LE, Meek K.To determine whether a recently developed test would correctly identify horses heterozygous for the severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) trait. Methods: Case series. Methods: 17 healthy Arabian horses that had previously produced foals with SCID, 1 healthy Arabian foal whose dam and sire had produced foals with SCID, 4 foals with SCID, and 1 healthy non-Arabian foal. Methods: DNA was extracted from leukocytes or fibroblasts, amplified by means of polymerase chain reaction, and hybridized with probes specific for the normal and mutant alleles of the catalytic subunit of DNA-dependent protein...
Sweeney CR, Russell GE.To determine type and frequency of complications associated with use of a one-hole subpalpebral lavage (SPL) system in horses. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: 150 horses with 156 SPL systems. Methods: Signalment, primary complaint, method used for placement, time SPL system was in place, and complications were retrieved from medical records. Results: Complications were not associated with placement, maintenance, or removal of 66 of 156 (42%) SPL systems. A minor complication was reported in association with 53 (34%) SPL systems, and a serious complication was reported in association wit...
de la Rúa-Domènech R, Mohammed HO, Cummings JF, Divers TJ, de Lahunta A, Summers BA.To identify intrinsic, management, nutritional, and environmental risk factors associated with equine motor neuron disease (EMND) and to determine whether epidemiologic evidence supports oxidative stress as a risk factor for developing EMND. Methods: Case-control study. Methods: 87 horses with EMND and 259 control horses. Methods: Information concerning each horse's history of exposure to multiple environmental factors prior to developing EMND was obtained by means of a questionnaire or personal interview. Exposure histories of horses with EMND and control horses were compared, and the associa...
Rahmanian MS, Thompson DL, Melrose PA.The ultrastructural and immunoreactive staining characteristics of cells containing prolactin (lactotropes) and growth hormone (GH; somatotropes) in the anterior pituitaries of gonadally intact pony mares were studied at the electron microscopic level. Lactotropes included two morphological subsets: Type I cells were larger and contained large, dense, polymorphic granules that were scattered throughout the cytoplasm; Type II cells were smaller and contained small, dense, polymorphic granules that were predominantly found in peripheral areas of the cytoplasm. Lactotropes constituted 5 to 16% of...
Albrecht BA, Daels PF.The onset of equine chorionic gonadotrophin (eCG) secretion in pregnant mares is associated with an increase in luteal androgen and oestrogen production. The luteal cell type(s) responsible for the increased production of androgens and oestrogens has not been identified in the equine corpus luteum. In this study, we examined the pattern of expression of 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3 beta-HSD), cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (P450(17 alpha)) and cytochrome P450 aromatase (P450arom) by immunohistochemistry in equine luteal tissue collected during dioestrus (days 7-10; ...
Leroux C, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC.We have investigated the genetic evolution of three functionally distinct regions of the equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) genome (env, rev, and long terminal repeat) during recurring febrile episodes in a pony experimentally infected with a well-characterized reference biological clone designated EIAV(PV). Viral populations present in the plasma of an EIAV(PV)-infected pony during sequential febrile episodes (18, 34, 80, 106, and 337 days postinfection) were amplified from viral RNA, analyzed, and compared to the inoculated strain. The comparison of the viral quasispecies showed that the ...
Savage CJ.Defining respiratory disease is not always easy in the horse because auscultation with accurate interpretation of lung sounds can be difficult. However, performing a thorough physical examination, including rebreathing auscultation and percussion of the thorax and sinuses, is very useful in elucidating the problem. Endoscopic examination of the upper respiratory system is also critical for definitively diagnosing certain conditions.
Viel L.Equine allergic small airway disease is a highly prevalent respiratory condition among the stabled horse population. With the assistance of new diagnostic tools such as bronchoalveolar lavage, the condition can be recognized in young performing horses. The pathophysiological and clinical features resemble an earlier stage of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as determined by the appearance of specific inflammatory cells. Although environmental management is paramount in controlling the disease, proper selective therapeutic regimens are as important to reduce the concurrent inflammation and...
Rush BR.Pharmacologic manipulation of pulmonary immunity plays an important role in primary and adjunct therapy for equine respiratory disease. Frequent exposure to respiratory viral pathogens, strenuous exercise, long distance transport, and inhalation of harmful substances destroy various aspects of the pulmonary defense system and predispose performance horses to development of infectious and noninfectious respiratory disease. Pulmonary immunity may be bolstered by nonspecific immunostimulants to combat primary or secondary immunodeficiency. State of the art technology improves active and passive-s...
Keg PR, van Weeren PR, Schamhardt HC, Barneveld A.A pressure-sensitive device was developed to measure the force applied to flexion tests of the distal limb of horses. The mean force applied by a group of experienced clinicians was 150 N which results in a moment on the flexed fetlock joint of about 28.5 Nm. The coefficient of variation of the force applied by one experienced clinician was only about 12 per cent, but the coefficient of variation between clinicians was considerably higher (20 per cent), irrespective of whether the clinicians were considered to be experienced or not. The mean force applied by a group of women examiners (114 N) ...
Traub-Dargatz J.This article describes the field investigation of horses with nasal discharge (serous, purulent, blood and feed). Flow charts on how to evaluate affected horses, and photographs of the examination procedures and of horses affected with nasal discharge are included.
Morlière P, Mazière JC, Patterson LK, Conte MA, Dupas JL, Ducroix JP, Filipe P, Santus R.Ferritin (Ft) impairment through (•)O2(-), H2O2, and (•)OH production occurs in the cases of ketoses, diabetes mellitus, acute intermittent porphyria and tyrosinemia. In addition to (•)Trp and TyrO(•) radical production, ferrous iron liberation and Ft synthesis stimulation, site-specific oxidation reactions are induced leading to toxic iron accumulation in organs with high Ft content, for example, liver and brain. To elucidate the potential pathways to Ft recovery, repair of oxidative damage to horse spleen apoferritin (apoFt) and Ft by quercetin (QH) or rutin (RH) was studied in the p...
Stegmann GF, Jones RS.The cortisol response to anaesthesia and surgery was studied in 2 groups of horses undergoing either abdominal or non-abdominal surgery. The preoperative mean plasma cortisol concentration (pcc) of 381.7 nmol/l (s.d. 254.7) was markedly higher in the abdominal group than the early-morning mean pcc of 115.6 nmol/l (s.d. 78.4) in the non-abdominal group. During halothane anaesthesia and surgery the mean pcc increased significantly (p < 0.05) from the preoperative mean of 119.2 to 215.9 nmol/l (s.d. 79.8) after 30 min of surgery in the non-abdominal group. In the abdominal group a decrease occ...
Back W, Smit LD, Schamhardt HC, Barneveld A.To study the influence of different exercise regimens on the development of locomotion, 40 Warmblood foals aged 1 week were subdivided into 3 groups: box-rest, training and pasture exercise. The box-rest group remained for 24 h a day in a box stall while the training group was housed similarly, but additionally received a 30 min workout with gallop sprints 6 times a week. The pasture group served as a control group and was kept at pasture for 24 h a day. After 5 months, the locomotion pattern at the trot of every foal was recorded overground with a 2-D MacReflex gait analysis system. A randoml...
Allen BV, Kane CE, Powell DG.Total and differential leucocyte counts have been determined by electronic counting techniques in 474, two-to-four-year-old healthy Thoroughbreds in training. The ranges of values observed (particular those for neutrophils and lymphocytes) were narrower than previously described. Absolute and percentage lymphocyte values were significantly decreased with advancing age causing a relative increase in percentage neutrophils. The fall in absolute lymphocyte numbers was the main cause for a significant decrease in total leucocytes with age. Frequency plots for each variable showed that, with the ex...
Derar RI, Maeda Y, Hoque SM, Osawa T, Watanabe G, Taya K, Miyake Y.Two pony mares were immunized against recombinant porcine inhibin alpha subunit three times with 39 day intervals. Clinical findings and endocrinological changes before immunization were taken as the control. The first significant rise in the anti-inhibin titre (P<0.05) in the circulation was found 27 days after the first injection. Maximum binding activity was reached by the 12th day after the second booster dose. The number of small, medium and large sized follicles had increased significantly compared to before immunization (11.75 +/- 4.30, 2.75 +/- 0.69 and 2.51 +/- 0.63 vs 6.50 +/- 1.4...
Acevedo HD, Hassebroek AM, Leventhal HR, Duhamel GE, Carvallo FR.A 17-y-old Rocky Mountain gelding was presented to the Virginia-Maryland Veterinary Teaching Hospital because of a 4-wk history of anorexia, weight loss, lethargy, and fever of unknown origin. Abdominal ultrasound revealed lymphadenomegaly of the abdominal and colonic lymph nodes, thickening of the wall of the large colon, and a mass associated with the large colon. The horse was euthanized given a poor prognosis. On autopsy, an ~20-cm diameter mass was found within the mesocolon between the right ventral and right dorsal colon. The mass had invaded through the colonic walls and formed a fistu...
De Bosschere H, Simoens P, Ducatelle R.A three-day-old foal died from intestinal strangulation due to a remnant of vitelline vein which extended between the umbilicus and the portal vein. The strangulating vein was identified on the basis of its morphological and histological structure. This finding, which is the first reported case of a persistent vitelline vein in a horse, is discussed in relation to the normal development and involution of the vitelline circulation.
Dahlgren LA, DeBowes RM, Gift LJ, Veatch JK.Heterotopic salivary tissue was diagnosed in a 7-month-old Quarter Horse colt with a history of a draining wound in the left temporal region from time of birth. Surgical excision of the tract was performed for diagnosis and treatment. Histologically, tissues were compatible with a mixed-type salivary gland, most likely of parotid salivary gland origin. Complete resolution of the drainage was achieved after surgical removal of the ectopic tissue.
MacDonald MH, Richardson DW, Morse CC.A 23-year-old Thoroughbred stallion was admitted to the hospital for treatment of acute esophageal obstruction. Clinical examination and contrast radiography confirmed the presence of an esophageal obstruction. The horse was euthanatized, and examination revealed a bolus of feed material occluding the esophageal lumen 6 cm caudal to the thoracic inlet, with underlying necrosis of the esophageal mucosa. A large pulsion diverticulum was identified in the caudocervical portion of the esophagus. Apparently, the phytobezoar was formed within the esophageal diverticulum and subsequently became dislo...
Stasiak K, Rola J, Zmudzinski JF.A highly sensitive and specific real-time PCR assay was used for detection and quantitation of equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) in the different internal organs of aborted fetuses. Tissue samples from 23 aborted fetuses submitted to the Department of Virology of the National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy between 2012 and 2013 were used for testing. Total DNA was extracted using a phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol standard protocol. A real-time PCR with forward and reverse primers encompassing a highly conserved region encoding viral glycoprotein B was adapted for diagnosis of EHV-1 ...
Elshalofy A, Wagener K, Weber K, Blanco M, Bauersachs S, Bollwein H.This study aimed to investigate the susceptibility to persistent breeding-induced endometritis (PBIE). Cytobrush samples were collected from 81 broodmares 1-3 days before artificial insemination (AI). Susceptibility to PBIE was evaluated by the presence of ≥ 2 cm of intrauterine fluid 24 h after AI, besides the fertility was determined by a sonographic pregnancy diagnosis 2 weeks after ovulation. RNA expressions were compared between susceptible non-pregnant (SNP) mares (n=9) and resistant pregnant (RP) mares (n=9) as well as between susceptible pregnant (SP) mares (n=9) and susceptible non-...
Overesch G, Wagner B, Radbruch A, Leibold W.The number of immunoglobulin G constant heavy chain genes (cgamma genes) varies broadly among mammalian species, reflecting structural and functional differences between expressed immunoglobulin G (IgG) isotypes and allotypes. Up to now equine IgG isotypes have been defined only at the biochemical and serological level. It is still not clear how many IgG isotypes exist in horses and whether there are any allotypes. Here, we describe the isolation and characterisation of equine cgamma genes. An equine genomic lambda phage library was screened with a human cgamma4 probe. Cross-hybridising equine...
Kaye BM, Elliott CR, Jalim SL.Snail bait poisoning is rare in horses. Cases have been reported, but clinical signs and subsequent prognostic indicators have been poorly documented and must be extrapolated from cases in companion animals. We describe in detail the poisoning of a horse that consumed a lethal dose of the carbamate, methiocarb. There are currently no guidelines for treating equine methiocarb toxicoses, but the principles of management are based on supportive therapy.
Orme CE, Dunnett M, Harris RC.The primary aim of this study was to examine the within-day variation in the concentration of total and individual long chain free fatty acids (C > 14) in normally fed horses. Plasma samples were collected over a 24 h period from 12 resting horses during three separate sessions (six horses in the first session and three in the second and third). Samples were analysed for individual long chain free fatty acids (FFA) and glucose. During normal feeding, the predominant FFA in plasma were palmitic (C16:0), linoleic (C18:2), oleic (C18:1), stearic (C18:0) and linolenic (C18:3). Together these ac...
Otzen H, Sieme H, Oldenhof H, Kassens A, Ertmer F, Rode K, Müller K, Klose K, Rohn K, Schoon HA, Meinecke B.The aim of this study was to evaluate the uterine blood supply and endometrial vessel architecture, during the equine estrous cycle. Narrow Band Imaging (NBI) hysteroscopy was used for evaluating changes in the endometrial vasculature during the estrous cycle [six mares, d 0 (representing the day of ovulation), d 6 and 11 in four locations]. In addition, endometrial biopsy samples were used for immunodetection of markers for angiogenesis (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A, its receptor 2, as well as angiopoietin-2 and its receptor-tyrosine-kinase Tie2) during the estrous cycle (three mares,...
Carluccio A, Contri A, Tosi U, De Amicis I, De Fanti C.To determine survival rate, complications, and short-term fertility rate after fetotomy in mares. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: 72 mares with severe dystocia. Methods: Records from 1991 to 2005 were searched for mares with dystocia in which a fetotomy was performed. Data relating to presentation and position of foals; survival rate, complications, and short-term fertility rate in mares; and 45-day pregnancy rate in mares bred 2 to 3 months after fetotomy were recorded. Results: Anterior fetal presentation was detected for 54 of 72 (75%) mares, posterior presentation was detected for 1...
Schrammel N, Deichsel K, Aurich J, Aurich C.Horses are seasonal breeders, and robust breeds may exhibit a winter hypometabolism when kept under semiferal conditions. In this study, we analyzed the effects of artificial long days on rectal temperature, heart rate, heart rate variability, hematology, coat changes, semen parameters, and plasma testosterone concentrations in Shetland stallions stabled overnight and assigned to a control group (CON, n = 9) kept under natural photoperiod, and a treatment group exposed to a long-day light program from 15 December to 20 March (AL, n = 9). During the 8-month study, rectal temperature, heart rate...
Wattanapornpilom T, Pornprasitroj P, Thongsri K, Iamprapai S, Suan-Aoy P, Chanda M.Chronic laminitis is a late stage of laminitis in horses characterised by distal phalangeal rotation and foot pain. Various trimming and shoeing methods have been implemented; however, they sometimes aggravate lameness, particularly in laminitic horses with poor hoof quality. Sand bedding confinement has alternatively been employed to relieve foot pain in laminitic horses; however, the impact of long-term confined sand bed accommodation on hoof conditions is unknown. Moreover, the time course of sand bedding housing for managing chronic laminitis has yet to be described. We report the outcome ...
Chambers TM, Reedy SE.In horses, presumptive diagnosis of equine influenza is commonly made on the basis of clinical signs. This alone is insufficient for confirmation of equine influenza, because other equine infectious respiratory diseases can in some degree have similar clinical presentations. Surveillance and control of equine influenza also necessitate detection of subclinical cases. Effective diagnosis of equine influenza virus infection is critically dependent on obtaining adequate specimens of virus-containing respiratory secretions for testing. These specimens are also valuable as sources for isolation of ...
Witarski W, Kij B, Nowak A, Bugno-Poniewierska M.A hucul mare with reproductive abnormalities was examined during karyotype analysis. The karyotype was analysed based on evaluation of 860 metaphase plates in chromosome preparations. The use of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) with an X chromosome painting probe showed premature X chromosome separation in 9.5% cases of examined chromosome spreads. In this report, we present the first identify premature centromere division (PCD) as a possible cause of abnormal X chromosome morphology in horses and as a probable cause of reproductive difficulties.
Lin YZ, Deng XL, Shen N, Lü XL, Zhao LP, Kong XG, Shao YM, Zhou JH.To develop a flow cytometry using (5-carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinmidyl ester, CFSE) to detect the proliferation of specific T lymphocytes from equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV). Methods: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were isolated, stained with CFSE and incubated with EIAV for 5 days. After interacted with either CD4(+) or CD8(+) antibody, the cells were detected for proliferated population, which contained serially 2-fold reduced CFSE in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Results: The concentration of CFSE, and the type, concentration and reaction time of EIAV-specific an...
