Topic:Behavior
Equine behavior encompasses the study of horses' actions, reactions, and interactions within their environment and with other living beings. It includes the examination of innate behaviors, such as grazing and herd dynamics, as well as learned behaviors influenced by training and human interaction. Understanding equine behavior is essential for improving horse welfare, training methods, and management practices. This topic covers a range of behaviors, from social structures and communication to stress responses and problem behaviors. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the various aspects of equine behavior, including factors that influence it and its implications for horse management and welfare.
Seasonal variations in daily rhythms of activity in athletic horses. Circadian rhythms reflect extensive programming of biological activity that meets and exploits the challenges and opportunities offered by the periodic nature of the environment. In the present investigation, we recorded the total activity of athletic horses kept at four different times of the year (vernal equinox, summer solstice, autumn equinox and winter solstice), to evaluate the presence of seasonal variations of daily activity rhythms. Athletic Thoroughbred horses were kept in individual boxes with paddock. Digitally integrated measure of total activity of each mare was continuously reco...
Is there evidence of learned helplessness in horses? Learned helplessness is a psychological condition whereby individuals learn that they have no control over unpleasant or harmful conditions, that their actions are futile, and that they are helpless. In a series of experiments in which dogs were exposed to inescapable shocks, this lack of control subsequently interfered with the ability to learn an avoidance task. There is evidence that both neural adaptations and behavioral despair occur in response to uncontrollable aversive experiences in rodents, although this has yet to be demonstrated in other species such as horses. However, certain tra...
Evaluating the addition of positive reinforcement for learning a frightening task: a pilot study with horses. Horse training often relies upon negative reinforcement (NR). This study tested the hypothesis that adding positive reinforcement (PR) to NR would enhance learning in horses (n = 34) being taught to walk over a tarp (novel/typically frightening task). Subjects were Arabians, and the same person handled all of them. This person handled half "traditionally" (NR only)--that is, halter/lead were pulled; when horse stepped forward, pressure was released; process repeated until criterion met (horse crossed the tarp with little/no obvious anxiety). The same person handled the other half traditionally...
Does horse temperament influence horse-rider cooperation? Cooperation between rider and horse is of major importance in equitation. A balanced team of horse and rider improves (sport) performances and welfare aspects by decreasing stress, frustration, risks of injuries, and accidents. Important features affecting the cooperation are the physical skills, knowledge, and personality of the rider on one hand and the temperament, experience, and physical abilities of the horse on the other. A study with 16 riders and 16 warm-blood riding horses tested the effect of personality of riders and temperament of horses on cooperation between riders and horses. M...
Preliminary investigations into the ethological relevance of round-pen (round-yard) training of horses. Recently, training horses within round-pens has increased in popularity. Practitioners often maintain that the responses they elicit from horses are similar to signals used with senior conspecifics. To audit the responses of horses to conspecifics, 6 mare-young-horse dyads, this study introduced them to each other in a round-pen and videoed them for 8 min. These dyads spent significantly more time farther than 10 m apart than they did less than 1 m apart (p < .001). The time they spent less than 1 m apart decreased over the 8-min test period (p = .018). Mares occupied the center of the roun...
Psychological effects of rapid weight loss and attitudes towards eating among professional jockeys. We examined the psychological effects of rapid weight loss among a sample of 41 professional jockeys (mean age 30.9 years, s = 7.0). Participants completed the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) and the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26) to establish the relationships between rapid weight loss, mood, and attitudes towards eating. These instruments were administered on three occasions: at the jockeys' minimal weight (achieved through rapid weight loss), their optimal riding weight (when they were not excessively restricting their weight and felt healthy), and their relaxed weight (when there were no fort...
Preliminary investigation of morphological differences between ten breeds of horses suggests selection for paedomorphosis. Paedomorphosis is the retention of juvenile morphology at maturity and is important in generating evolutionary change in domestic species and species in the wild. When comparing dogs with the wolf, this preliminary study saw paedomorphosis in their physical and behavioral traits (Goodwin, Bradshaw, & Wickens, 1997). This preliminary study compared morphological characteristics of 10 breeds from northern regions (Shetland ponies) and southern regions (Arabians) with the Exmoor pony. Twenty-three respondents from the United Kingdom and Australia rated the breeds for 7 physical traits. As evi...
Overshadowing: a silver lining to a dark cloud in horse training. Overshadowing is a process known in behavioral science that occurs when two stimuli of different strengths are applied simultaneously to a nonhuman animal. Typically, the stronger stimulus overshadows the weaker one, resulting in attenuation of the weaker stimulus. This phenomenon explains ways in which the decreased responsiveness and consequent conflict behaviors (and possibly learned helplessness and wastage) in some performance horses can result from the application of two concurrent aversive stimuli. Despite some adverse consequences in the context of ridden horses, overshadowing can have...
Assessing the rider’s seat and horse’s behavior: difficulties and perspectives. A correct seat and position are the basis for a good performance in horseback riding. This study aimed to measure deviations from the correct seat, test a seat improvement program (dismounted exercises), and investigate whether horse behavior was affected by the rider's seat. Five experienced trainers defined 16 seat deviations and scored the occurrence in 20 riders in a dressage test. Half the riders then carried out an individual training program; after 9 weeks, riders were again scored. The study took no video or heart-rate recordings of horses and riders. Panel members did not agree on the...
Producer or purchaser: different expectations may lead to equine wastage and welfare concerns. Horses are individual, each having differential characteristics such as height, color, breeding, conformation, and temperament. These bio-characteristics often influence potential purchasers when buying horses. This study sought to investigate if producers and potential purchasers placed similar emphasis on equine bio-characteristics. Sport-horse stakeholders--n = 1377 (792 producers and 585 potential purchasers)--rated various equine bio-characteristics on a Likert psychometric response scale during a questionnaire-based survey. The study analyzed responses, using the Wilcoxan test for statis...
Risk factors for epiploic foramen entrapment colic in a UK horse population: a prospective case-control study. Epiploic foramen entrapment (EFE) is a common cause of small intestinal strangulation in the horse and its epidemiology requires further investigation. Objective: To identify horse- and management-level risk factors for EFE and to explore reasons for the apparent seasonality of this condition. Objective: Horses exhibiting certain behaviours and those exposed to particular management practices that vary seasonally are at increased risk of EFE. Methods: A prospective unmatched, multicentre case-control study was conducted over 24 months in the UK. Data on 77 cases and 216 control horses were obt...
Effects of a low dose infusion of racemic and S-ketamine on the nociceptive withdrawal reflex in standing ponies. To investigate the effect of plasma concentrations obtained by a low dose constant rate infusion (CRI) of racemic ketamine or S-ketamine on the nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR) in standing ponies. Methods: Prospective, blinded, cross-over study. Methods: Six healthy 5-year-old Shetland ponies. Methods: Ponies received either 0.6 mg kg(-1) racemic ketamine (group RS) or 0.3 mg kg(-1) S-ketamine (group S) intravenously (IV), followed by a CRI of 20 microg kg(-1)minute(-1) racemic ketamine (group RS) or 10 microg kg(-1)minute(-1) S-ketamine (group S) for 59 minutes. The NWR was evoked by trans...
Pharmacokinetics and effects of aminorex in horses. To investigate the pharmacokinetics and behavioral effects of aminorex administered IV and PO in horses. Methods: 7 Thoroughbreds. Methods: In a cross-over design, aminorex (0.03 mg/kg) was administered IV or PO. Plasma and urinary aminorex concentrations were determined via liquid chromatography- mass spectrometry. Results: Decrease of aminorex from plasma following IV administration was described by a 3-compartment pharmacokinetic model. Median (range) values of alpha, beta, and gamma half-lives were 0.04 (0.01 to 0.28), 2.30 (1.23 to 3.09), and 18.82 (8.13 to 46.64) hours, respectively. Tot...
Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the electroencephalogram in normal horses during spontaneous drowsiness and sleep. The influence of sleep on the equine electroencephalogram (EEG) has not been well documented. Objective: The objectives were to develop a noninvasive method of electrode placement for recording the EEG in horses and to establish normal EEG parameters for the various states of vigilance. Findings are compared with previously published reports on equine sleep based on electrocorticography (ECoG). Methods: Five neurologically normal horses. Methods: Overnight EEGs were recorded digitally in association with simultaneous videotaping of the horses' behavior. Data were analyzed by visual inspection,...
Practical review of self-mutilation in horses. Self-mutilation in horses includes biting, stomping and kicking, rubbing, and lunging into objects. Based on the author's clinical experience, three distinct types of self-mutilation are proposed and described. Type I represents normal behavioral response to continuous or intermittent physical discomfort. Type II, seen in stallions and geldings, can be recognized as self-directed intermale aggression. The behavior includes the elements and order of the natural interactive sequence typical of encounters between two stallions, except that the stallion himself is the target of his intermale behav...
Facial hair whorls (trichoglyphs) and the incidence of motor laterality in the horse. Several species demonstrate obvious motor laterality (sidedness, handedness) in their motor function. Motor laterality in the horse affects locomotion and subsequently equine performance during training and may have inherent safety implications for equitation. Some of the most commonly used identification features in the horse are hair whorls (trichoglyphs), since their specific location and character vary to some degree in every horse. We investigated the relationship between the hair flow of single facial hair whorls and the incidence of lateralised motor bias in 219 horses when under saddle...
Could adults be used to improve social skills of young horses, Equus caballus? We investigated the effects of the introduction of foreign adults on the behavior of young horses. First, we observed the behavior of 1- and 2-year-old domestic horses housed in same-age and same-sex groups (a standard housing system, but different from a natural situation). Then, two same-sex adults were introduced into each experimental group. Observations made before, during and after an introduction indicated that young horses reared in homogeneous groups of young had different behaviors compared to other domestic horses reared under more socially natural conditions. After the introduction...
Flight distance and avoidance score in thoroughbred foals and yearlings and the relationship with handling frequency in the young ages. Flight and avoidance reactions from human were examined using 168 postweaning Thoroughbred foals in 22 breeding farms. Further 114 yearlings of 168 foals were tested in the following summer. The foal handlings by the stabler were asked in questionnaire. The relationship between the behavioural reactions and the foal handling frequencies was analyzed. The flight reaction was estimated as the distance from the animal to a stranger when the animal began to flight away from his approach. The avoidance scores were set up from (1) (not resistant) to (5) (touch rejection) from human touching. In the ...
[Sensation seeking in a French population of horse betting gamblers: comparison between pathological and regular]. A theoretical position on the role of arousal in gambling comes in the form of Zuckerman's theory of sensation seeking. Zuckerman originally suggested a relationship between sensation seeking and gambling in which individuals entertain the risk of monetary loss for the positive reinforcement produced by states of high arousal during the periods of uncertainty, as well as the positive arousal produced by winning. However, this hypothesis has received inconsistent support. Results of the literature support the view that there is a difference between gambling form selection and use, suggesting th...
Validity of indicators of dehydration in working horses: a longitudinal study of changes in skin tent duration, mucous membrane dryness and drinking behaviour. Dehydration is a serious welfare concern in horses working in developing countries. Identification of a valid and practical indicator of dehydration would enable more rapid treatment and prevention. Objective: To examine changes in bodyweight, clinical and blood parameters during rehydration of working horses, identify a 'gold standard' criterion for dehydration and use this to validate a standardised skin tent test, drinking behaviour and mucous membrane dryness as potential field indicators. Methods: Fifty horses with a positive skin tent test, working in environmental temperatures of 30-44 ...
Unexplained underperformance syndrome in sport horses: classification, potential causes and recognition. When inadequate training stress is applied and recovery time is insufficient, performance reduction and chronic maladaptation occurs. Known as overtraining syndrome (OTS), this complex condition afflicts horses in top training. The name of the syndrome implies causation and it is necessary to differentiate it from over-reaching, a term used in horses that, after suffering a loss of performance without an obvious clinical reason, recover their performance within 1 or 2 weeks. The term OTS should be used for horses in heavy training losing performance without an obvious clinical reason and which...
Impaired instrumental choice in crib-biting horses (Equus caballus). Horses displaying an oral stereotypy were tested on an instrumental choice paradigm to examine differences in learning from non-stereotypic counterparts. Stereotypic horses are known to have dysfunction of the dorsomedial striatum, and lesion studies have shown that this region may mediate response-outcome learning. The paradigm was specifically applied in order to examine learning that requires maintenance of response-outcome judgements. The non-stereotypic horses learned, over three sessions, to choose a more immediate reinforcer, whereas the stereotypic horses failed to do so. This suggests...
Laterality and emotions: visual laterality in the domestic horse (Equus caballus) differs with objects’ emotional value. Lateralization of emotions has received great attention in the last decades, both in humans and animals, but little interest has been given to side bias in perceptual processing. Here, we investigated the influence of the emotional valence of stimuli on visual and olfactory explorations by horses, a large mammalian species with two large monocular visual fields and almost complete decussation of optic fibres. We confronted 38 Arab mares to three objects with either a positive, negative or neutral emotional valence (novel object). The results revealed a gradient of exploration of the 3 objects ...
Mechanical nociceptive thresholds within the pastern region of Tennessee Walking Horses. 'Soring' is the term used to describe the application of an irritant to the distal forelimbs of gaited horses with the sole intent of inflicting pain and inducing altered gait, illegally practiced in Tennessee Walking Horses. Objective methods for the detection of limb pain due to this practice are, however, lacking. Objective: To assess whether Tennessee Walking Horses respond to manual pressures<or=10 kg/cm2 and to establish reference mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) within the pastern region. Methods: In 25 mature Tennessee Walking Horses in which no irritant had been applied, MN...
Pharmacokinetics and tolerance of transdermal fentanyl administration in foals. To characterize the pharmacokinetics of fentanyl and the tolerance of foals to the drug following a single application of a commercially available transdermal system (TS). Methods: Prospective experimental study. Methods: Six (two male, four female) foals aged 4-8 days, weighing 56-74 kg. Methods: After placement of a jugular sampling catheter, one fentanyl TS (FTS) containing 10.2 mg fentanyl, released at 100 microg hour(-1), was applied for 72 hours. Blood samples were withdrawn over the course of 90 hours for fentanyl plasma analysis. Before and after the study, weight, complete blood count...
Comparative study of epidural xylazine or clonidine in horses. To evaluate the cardiorespiratory and behavioural effects of epidural xylazine (XYL) or clonidine (CLO) in horses. Methods: Blinded, randomized experimental study. Methods: Twelve healthy Arabian yearling horses weighing 117-204 kg were randomly allocated into two groups: XYL (n = 6) and CLO (n = 6). Methods: An epidural catheter was inserted and a facial arterial catheter was placed and the next day the horses were restrained in stocks. Baseline values for heart (HR) and respiratory (RR) rates, arterial pressure and behavioural responses were evaluated before (T0) and 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 90 a...
Risk factors for epiploic foramen entrapment colic: an international study. Epiploic foramen entrapment (EFE) is one of the most common causes of small intestinal strangulation in the horse. Identification of risk factors would generate hypotheses about causation and may suggest preventive strategies. Objective: Horses exhibiting certain behavioural patterns and those exposed to particular management practices are at increased risk of EFE. Methods: A matched case-control study was conducted on EFE cases admitted to hospitals in the UK, Ireland and USA. Data on 109 cases and 310 control horses were obtained by telephone questionnaire and conditional logistic regression...
An investigation of colour discrimination with horses (Equus caballus). The ability of four horses (Equus caballus) to discriminate coloured (three shades of blue, green, red, and yellow) from grey (neutral density) stimuli, produced by back projected lighting filters, was investigated in a two response forced-choice procedure. Pushes of the lever in front of a coloured screen were occasionally reinforced, pushes of the lever in front of a grey screen were never reinforced. Each colour shade was randomly paired with a grey that was brighter, one that was dimmer, and one that approximately matched the colour in terms of brightness. Each horse experienced the colour...