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Topic:Biomechanics
Biomechanics in horses refers to the study of the mechanical principles that govern movement and physical function in equine species. This field encompasses the analysis of gait, locomotion, and the forces exerted by and upon the horse's musculoskeletal system. Biomechanical studies often involve the use of motion capture technology, force plates, and computer modeling to assess how horses move and how various factors, such as conformation, training, and health status, influence their performance and soundness. Research in equine biomechanics contributes to understanding injury prevention, rehabilitation, and performance optimization. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanics of movement, the impact of external and internal forces, and the applications of biomechanical analysis in equine care and management.
Screw fixation in lag fashion of equine cadaveric metacarpal and metatarsal condylar bone specimens: a biomechanical comparison of shaft and cortex screws. To compare acute fixation stability and insertion effort of cortex bone screws with and without a shaft inserted in lag fashion in equine metacarpal (metatarsal, MC(T)III) bone. Methods: Screw types with independent variables of screw diameter (4.5 or 5.5 mm) and shaft type (without shaft, with 20-mm shaft, or with 25-mm shaft) were studied. Bone specimens cut from distal equine MC(T)III condyles were used. After screw insertion in lag fashion into 2 bone blocks with an instrumented device, shear tests were conducted in a mechanical testing machine. Outcome variables of peak insertion torque, ...
Influence of training on the biokinematics in trotting Andalusian horses. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of a 10-month training programme on the linear, temporal and angular characteristics of the fore and hind limbs at the trot in the Andalusian horse, using standard computer-aided videography. Sixteen male Andalusian horses were observed before and after training. Six strides were randomly selected for analysis in each horse and linear, temporal and angular parameters were calculated for fore and hind limbs. The training programme used here produced significant changes in kinematic parameters, such as shortening of stride length, and increase...
Body centre of mass movement in the sound horse. The body centre of mass (BCM) is a key factor in the analysis of equine locomotion, as its position and movement determines the distribution and magnitude of loads on the limbs. In this study, the three-dimensional (3D) movement of the BCM in walking and trotting horses was assessed using a kinematic, segmental method. Thirty markers representing 20 body segments were recorded in 12 sound horses while standing, walking and trotting on a treadmill using a high-speed video system. Based on segmental inertial data, 3D positions of the segmental centres of mass as well as the total BCM were calcul...
In vitro comparison of the use of two large-animal, centrally threaded, positive-profile transfixation pin designs in the equine third metacarpal bone. To compare the in vitro holding power and associated microstructural damage of 2 large-animal centrally threaded positive-profile transfixation pins in the diaphysis of the equine third metacarpal bone. Methods: 25 pairs of adult equine cadaver metacarpal bones. Methods: Centrally threaded positive-profile transfixation pins of 2 different designs (ie, self-drilling, self-tapping [SDST] vs nonself-drilling, nonself-tapping [NDNT] transfixation pins) were inserted into the middiaphysis of adult equine metacarpal bones. Temperature of the hardware was measured during each step of insertion with ...
Superficial digital flexor tendonitis in the horse. The superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) is an elastic structure that during maximal exercise appears to operate close to its functional limits. The biomechanical and biochemical responses to exercise, injury, and healing are still poorly understood but ongoing research is providing valuable new information which is addressed in this review. It appears that the SDFT matures early, after which time it has limited ability to adapt to stress and undergoes progressive degeneration. Focal hypocellularity, collagen fibril degeneration, selective fibril loading and alterations in the noncollageno...
The influence of different exercise regimens on the development of locomotion in the foal. To study the influence of different exercise regimens on the development of locomotion, 40 Warmblood foals aged 1 week were subdivided into 3 groups: box-rest, training and pasture exercise. The box-rest group remained for 24 h a day in a box stall while the training group was housed similarly, but additionally received a 30 min workout with gallop sprints 6 times a week. The pasture group served as a control group and was kept at pasture for 24 h a day. After 5 months, the locomotion pattern at the trot of every foal was recorded overground with a 2-D MacReflex gait analysis system. A randoml...
Age-related changes and effect of exercise on the molecular composition of immature equine superficial digital flexor tendons. To test the hypothesis that exercise at very young age may influence the eventual molecular composition (and hence the biomechanical properties) of tendon tissue in the horse, 43 Dutch Warmblood foals were allotted to 3 differently exercised groups (box-rest, box-rest with training and pasture exercise). Twenty-four superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFTs) were collected at age 5 months (8 from each exercise group) and the others were obtained at 11 months after an additional period of light exercise that was equal for all remaining foals and was intended to see if any induced changes would ...
Influence of exercise on bone mineral density of immature cortical and trabecular bone of the equine metacarpus and proximal sesamoid bone. Bone mineral density (BMD) and cross-sectional area (CSA), measured using peripheral quantitative computed tomography, were determined in the left third metacarpal bone (MCIII) and left medial proximal sesamoid bone (psb) in 3 differently exercised groups of foals. Group(box) (n = 14) was confined to a box stall from birth to age 5 months, Group(training) (n = 14) was kept in similar box stalls but additionally given a daily exercise programme consisting of an increasing number of gallop sprints and Group(pasture) (n = 15) remained at pasture. At 5 months of age, 8 foals from each group were r...
Individual speed dependency of forelimb lameness in trotting horses. Using a system for motion analysis, linear correlation of speed and forelimb lameness was measured in 16 horses trotting on a treadmill at a minimum of three different trotting speeds. Forelimb lameness was determined as asymmetry of vertical head motion during left and right forelimb stance. In seven horses with a moderate forelimb lameness (head motion asymmetry >40%), lameness increased significantly with trotting speed. In a further seven horses with mild or subclinical forelimb lameness (head motion asymmetry <40%) and in two horses with a moderate forelimb lameness, no significant ...
Energy expenditure of horse riding. Oxygen consumption (VO2), ventilation (VE) and heart rate (HR) were studied in five recreational riders with a portable oxygen analyser (K2 Cosmed, Rome) telemetric system, during two different experimental riding sessions. The first one was a dressage session in which the rider successively rode four different horses at a walk, trot and canter. The second one was a jumping training session. Each rider rode two horses, one known and one unknown. The physiological parameters were measured during warm up at a canter in suspension and when jumping an isolated obstacle at a trot and canter. This s...
Kinematics of the hind limb in trotting horses after induced lameness of the distal intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joints and intra-articular administration of anesthetic. To identify hind limb and pelvic kinematic variables that change in trotting horses after induced lameness of the distal intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joints and after subsequent intra-articular administration of anesthetic. Methods: 8 clinically normal adult horses. Methods: Kinematic measurements were made before and after transient endotoxin-induced lameness of the distal intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joints and after intra-articular administration of anesthetic. Fourteen displacement and joint angle (metatarsophalangeal [fetlock] and tarsal joints) measurements were made on the right h...
Functional morphology of the equine pelvic flexure and its role in disease. A review. The hindgut is the major site in the horse for nutrient digestion and absorption. Most of this activity occurs in the large intestinal compartments, i.e., cecum, right and left ventral colon and left and right dorsal colon. The colonic pelvic flexure is a short and narrow loop connecting the left ventral and left dorsal colon. It is not significant directly in digestive and absorptive processes but plays an important functional role in regulating colonic aboral and retropropulsive transit of digesta through its motility pacemaker activity. The pelvic flexure also contributes to the pathophysio...
Use of an instrument sandwiched between the hoof and shoe to measure vertical ground reaction forces and three-dimensional acceleration at the walk, trot, and canter in horses. To develop an instrument that could be sandwiched between the hoof and shoe of horses and that would reliably measure vertical ground reaction forces and three-dimensional acceleration at the walk, trot, and canter. Methods: 5 clinically sound Thoroughbreds. Methods: The recording instrument (weight, 350 g) consisted of 2 metal plates, 2 bolts, 4 load cells, and 3 accelerometers. It was mounted to the hoof with a glue-on shoe and devised to support as much load exerted by a limb as possible. The load cells and accelerometers were wired to a 16-channel transmitter, and transmitted signals were ...
The forelimb in walking horses: 2. Net joint moments and joint powers. The objective was to measure the net joint moments and joint powers for the joints of the equine forelimb during the walk. Videographic and force data were combined with morphometric information using an inverse dynamics method. During stance phase the predominant joint moment was on the palmar aspect of all forelimb joints except the shoulder, where the peak moment was considerably higher than at any other joint. The entire forelimb showed net energy absorption in both stance and swing phases. The elbow was the only joint that showed net generation of energy, which was used to maintain the li...
The effects of treadmill inclination and speed on the activity of two hindlimb muscles in the trotting horse. Electromyographic activity (EMG) was used to determine how hindlimb muscle activation patterns vary with speed and incline in the horse. EMG was recorded using surface electrodes over the gluteus medius and tensor fasciae latae muscles during treadmill locomotion at trot for different combinations of speed (3.5 to 6 m/s) and inclination (0, 3 and 6%). Raw EMG signals were processed to determine stride duration, activity onset and end, and integrated EMG (IEMG). Stride and stance phase duration decreased linearly with increasing speed. Stride duration was not influenced by the slope. Onset and ...
The forelimb in walking horses: 1. Kinematics and ground reaction forces. Video (60 Hz) and force (2000 Hz) data were collected from 5 sound horses during walking. Forelimb data were analysed for 8 strides (4 left, 4 right) per horse to determine sagittal plane kinematics and ground reaction forces (GRFs). The results suggested that brachial rotation was responsible for protraction and retraction of the limb as a whole, while rotations of the scapula and antebrachium elevated the distal limb during breakover and early swing then lowered it in preparation for ground contact. The coffin joint was flexed maximally at the time of peak longitudinal braking force, which o...
In vitro biomechanical properties of 2 compression fixation methods for midbody proximal sesamoid bone fractures in horses. To evaluate 2 methods of midbody proximal sesamoid bone repair--fixation by a screw placed in lag fashion and circumferential wire fixation--by comparing yield load and the adjacent soft-tissue strain during monotonic loading. Methods: Experimental study. Methods: 10 paired equine cadaver forelimbs from race-trained horses. Methods: A transverse midbody osteotomy of the medial proximal sesamoid bone (PSB) was created. The osteotomy was repaired with a 4.5-mm cortex bone screw placed in lag fashion or a 1.25-mm circumferential wire. The limbs were instrumented with differential variable relucta...
Concrete use of the joint coordinate system for the quantification of articular rotations in the digital joints of the horse. A method is detailed allowing the computation of three-dimensional (3D) joint angles. Each joint of the equine digit is modelled as a sequence of three single axis rotary joints. The Joint Coordinate System was used; it involves a specific sequence of cardanic angles. The decomposition of the angles was chosen so that the three elementary angles coincide with the flexion/extension, passive abduction/adduction and lateral/medial rotations. The algorithms and kinematic procedures were described for the equine front digital joints. This method was tested in vitro on four forelimbs. For each limb,...
Preferred speed and cost of transport: the effect of incline. Preferred speed is the behavioral tendency of animals to utilize a relatively narrow set of speeds near the middle of a much broader range that they are capable of using within a particular gait. Possible explanations for this behavior include minimizing musculoskeletal stresses and maximizing energetic economy. If preferred speed is determined by energetic economy (cost of transport, C(T)), then shifts in preferred speed should produce shifts in C(T). To test this hypothesis, preferred speeds were measured in trotting horses on the level and on an incline. The preferred trotting speed decreas...
Gait and speed as exercise components of risk factors associated with onset of fatigue injury of the third metacarpal bone in 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses. To determine the degree to which components of the training program of 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses influence their susceptibility to fatigue injury of the third metacarpal bone (bucked shins). Methods: 226 two-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Daily training information and health reports on 2-year-old Thoroughbreds were compiled from records provided from 5 commercial stables. For each horse, data (exercise variables) were collected that comprised distance jogged (approx speed of 5 m/s), galloped (approx 11 m/s), and breezed (approx 15 to 16 m/s) until a single instance of buc...
Changes in kinematic variables observed during pressure-induced forelimb lameness in adult horses trotting on a treadmill. To determine whether kinematic changes induced by heel pressure in horses differ from those induced by toe pressure. Methods: 10 adult Quarter Horses. Methods: A shoe that applied pressure on the cuneus ungulae (frog) or on the toe was used. Kinematic analyses were performed before and after 2 levels of frog pressure and after 1 level of toe pressure. Values for stride displacement and time and joint angles were determined from horses trotting on a treadmill. Results: The first level of frog pressure caused decreases in metacarpophalangeal (fetlock) joint extension during stance and increases ...
Functional adaptation of equine articular cartilage: the formation of regional biochemical characteristics up to age one year. Biochemical heterogeneity of cartilage within a joint is well known in mature individuals. It has recently been reported that heterogeneity for proteoglycan content and chondrocyte metabolism in sheep develops postnatally under the influence of loading. No data exist on the collagen network in general or on the specific situation in the horse. The objective of this study was to investigate the alterations in equine articular cartilage biochemistry that occur from birth up to age one year, testing the hypothesis that the molecular composition of equine cartilage matrix is uniform at birth and b...
A curve-fitting technique for evaluating head movement to measure forelimb lameness in horses. Evaluation of the asymmetry of vertical head movement is used during kinematic evaluation of forelimb lameness in horses. For mild lameness, absolute translational measurements are not sensitive enough to detect small differences in the asymmetry of vertical head movement. Also, conscious movement of the head by the horse, not associated with lameness, interferes with accurate measurement. We describe an improved method of evaluating vertical head movement as a measure of lameness, using an model of induced lameness in 9 horses and a time-domain processing technique of curve-fitting. The techn...
Autologous morsellised bone grafting restores uncontained femoral bone defects in knee arthroplasty. An in vivo study in horses. The properties of impacted morsellised bone graft (MBG) in revision total knee arthroplasty (TKA) were studied in 12 horses. The left hind metatarsophalangeal joint was replaced by a human TKA. The horses were then randomly divided into graft and control groups. In the graft group, a unicondylar, lateral uncontained defect was created in the third metatarsal bone and reconstructed using autologous MBG before cementing the TKA. In the control group, a cemented TKA was implanted without the bone resection and grafting procedure. After four to eight months, the animals were killed and a biomechan...
The effect of flat horseshoes, raised heels and lowered heels on the biomechanics of the equine hoof assessed by finite element analysis (FEA). The biomechanical effects of lowering and raising the heels were studied using a finite element (FE) computer model of the equine hoof capsule consisting of 18,635 finite elements. A static load of 3000 N was distributed to nodes of the inner hoof wall (80%) according to the suspension of the coffin bone, 20% loaded sole and frog. When loaded the FE hoof capsules showed the following deformations: the proximal dorsal wall moves back, the quarters flare to the side and sole and frog perform a downward movement. Stresses are high in the material surrounding the quarter nails, in the heels and in...
Osteoclastic resorption of equine cranial and postcranial bone in vitro. To address possible differences in the resorbability of cranial and postcranial bone, slices of equine frontal bone and leg (first phalanx or third metacarpus) were seeded with embryonic chick bone cells and cultured for 20-24h. After removing the cells and drying the specimens, the areas and volumes of more than 800 resorption pits in each set were measured using a video-rate reflection confocal microscope system. Relative mineralization densities were determined by quantitative electron backscattering analysis. The mean mineralization density was greater in the leg bone, but the mean depths ...
Basic three-dimensional kinematics of the vertebral column of horses walking on a treadmill. To determine kinematic movements of the vertebral column of horses during normal locomotion. Methods: 5 Dutch Warmblood horses without apparent lameness or problems associated with the vertebral column. Methods: Kinematics of 8 vertebrae (T6, T10, T13, T17, L1, L3, L5, and S3) and both tuber coxae were determined, using bone-fixated markers. Horses were recorded while walking on a treadmill at a constant speed of 1.6 m/s. Results: Flexion-extension was characterized by 2 periods of extension and flexion during 1 stride cycle, whereas lateral bending and axial rotation were characterized by 1 p...
Comparison of the performance of linear resistance and ultrasonic pneumotachometers at rest and during lobeline-induced hyperpnoea. The performance of a Fleisch No. 5 pneumotachometer (F), and two commercial ultrasonic pneumotachometers, the BRDL (B) and the Spiroson (S) systems were compared in respect to their use for determination of ventilatory parameters at rest and during lobeline-induced hyperpnoea. Five clinically healthy Thoroughbred horses were tested with the three pneumotachometers in random order. Respiratory airflow, respired gas concentrations, oesophageal pressures, pressures within the mask systems and arterial blood gases were determined before and during lobeline-induced hyperpnoea. Because measured peak...
