The skeletal system in horses comprises a complex structure of bones that provide support, protection, and mobility. Equine bones are involved in various physiological functions, including mineral storage and hematopoiesis. The bone structure in horses is categorized into different types, such as long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones, each serving specific roles in movement and stability. Research in this area explores topics such as bone development, remodeling, and the impact of nutrition and exercise on bone health. This page gathers peer-reviewed studies and academic articles that focus on the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of bones in horses, offering insights into conditions such as fractures, bone diseases, and the effects of aging on the equine skeletal system.
Whitton RC, Ayodele BA, Hitchens PL, Mackie EJ.Microdamage accumulation leads to subchondral bone injury and/or fracture in racehorses. An understanding of this process is essential for developing strategies for injury prevention. Objective: To quantify subchondral bone microdamage in the third metacarpal bone of Thoroughbred racehorses at different stages of the training cycle. Methods: Cross-sectional. Methods: Bone blocks from the palmar aspect of the medial condyles of third metacarpal bones from 46 racing Thoroughbred horses undergoing post-mortem were examined with micro computed tomography (microCT) to detect calcified microcracks, ...
Baird A, Lindsay T, Everett A, Iyemere V, Paterson YZ, McClellan A, Henson FMD, Guest DJ.Bone fractures occur in horses following traumatic and non-traumatic (bone overloading) events. They can be difficult to treat due to the need for the horse to bear weight on all legs during the healing period. Regenerative medicine to improve fracture union and recovery could significantly improve horse welfare. Equine induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have previously been derived. Here we show that equine iPSCs cultured for 21 days in osteogenic induction media on an OsteoAssay surface upregulate the expression of osteoblast associated genes and proteins, including , , , , and We al...
Lacitignola L, Luca P, Santovito R, Comite MSD, Crovace A.Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism (NSH) is uncommon in horses. Aim of this report is evaluate an alternative therapeutic approach and provide more information on the diagnostic procedures, through detailed microscopic findings of the bone lesions pony with NSH. Administration of tiludronate along with a balanced diet can be used in a treatment protocol for ponies with NSH. This case report suggests that tiludronate can be used to ameliorate the clinical signs of NSH.
Heck L, Wilson LAB, Evin A, Stange M, Sánchez-Villagra MR.In horses, the morphological changes induced by the process of domestication are reportedly less pronounced than in other species, such as dogs or pigs - although the horses' disparity has rarely been empirically tested. We investigated shape differences and modularity of domesticated horses, Przewalski's horses, donkeys and zebras. Mandibular and tooth shape have been shown to be valuable features for differentiating wild and domesticated forms in some mammals. Results: Both mandible and teeth, show a pattern of shape space occupation analogous to that of the cranium, with domesticated horses...
Komosa M, Włodarek J, Dzierzęcka M, Nienartowicz-Zdrojewska A, Tołkacz M.The problem of navicular bone lesions is better understood in warmblood horses. The aim of our research was to compare pathologic lesions of navicular bone of different types of horses divided into age groups. An extra goal was to compare radiographs with anatomical status of navicular bone dissected from the hoof capsule. The study group included 161 horses, out of which 100 individuals were warmbloods, and 61 - coldbloods. In total 280 navicular bones were analysed. The flexor surface, distal border fragments, enthesophytes and the process of obliteration of nutrient foramina were analysed. ...
Lorenzo FDR.Non-unions at forearms are usually challenging and difficult to treat. If additionally, an infection is present, reconstructive surgery should be planned only after full debridement, antibiotic treatment, and confirmation, based on clinical observation and laboratory tests that the infection has subsided. Bone grafting may be required for reconstruction. The use of autogenous bone calls for a second surgical site with an increased risk of morbidity. Using bone substitutes may reduce the need for autogenous bone. Stimulating factors, such as bone marrow concentrate (BMC) and demineralized bone ...
Le Roux C, Carstens A.Axial sesamoiditis or osteitis of the proximal sesamoid bones (PSBs) in the horse is described as a rare condition. The cause remains unknown and speculative, with vascular, infectious, and traumatic aetiologies implicated. It is specifically associated with injury of the palmar or plantar ligament (PL), also known as the intersesamoidean ligament. Imaging findings are generally rewarding and radiological changes are typical, if not pathognomonic, for the condition. Lesions consist of bone lysis at the apical to mid-body axial margins of the PSBs, with variable degrees of joint effusion. Radio...
Uhl EW.Although vitamin D is critical to calcium/phosphorus homeostasis, bone formation and remodeling, there is evolution-based variation between species in vitamin D metabolism and susceptibility to rickets and osteomalacia. Most herbivores produce vitamin D3 in response to sunlight, but dogs and cats have generally lost the ability as carnivore diets are rich in vitamin D. Nutritional deficiencies and/or poor exposure to sunlight can induce rickets in birds, swine, cattle and sheep, but horses are less susceptible as they have evolved a calcium homeostasis that is quite different than other animal...
Gorissen BMC, Wolschrijn CF, van Rietbergen B, Rieppo L, Saarakkala S, van Weeren PR.Horses are precocial animals and able to stand and walk within hours after birth. To cope with associated loading, intrauterine bone development has shown to be anticipative. This study provides further insight into the post-natal development of structurally important features of trabecular and subchondral bone of the talus and sagittal ridge of the tibia of warm-blooded horses. In all areas studied, the average bone volume fraction showed a gradual increase over time, which was the result of a significant increase in trabecular thickness, without significant changes in the degree of anisotrop...
Biggi M, Dyson SJ.OBJECTIVE To use high-field and low-field MRI to describe the anatomy of the proximal portion of the tarsal region (proximal tarsal region) of nonlame horses. SAMPLE 25 cadaveric equine tarsi. PROCEDURES The proximal portion of 1 tarsus from each of 25 nonlame horses with no history of tarsal lameness underwent high-field (1.5-T) and low-field (0.27-T) MRI. Resulting images were used to subjectively describe the anatomy of that region and obtain measurements of the collateral ligaments of the tarsocrural joint. RESULTS Long and short components of the lateral and medial collateral ligaments of...
May-Davis S, Doveren A, Sweere R, Smak J, Vermeulen Z.Hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is a condition rarely diagnosed in horses, which has not been previously reported in Dutch Warmblood horses. Its presentation resembles that diagnosed in humans, and it is predominantly active during periods of skeletal maturation. This case study reports a link between a granddam with no obvious HME lesions and its first and second generations presenting with HME, albeit with different sires. The severity in affected horses (n = 5) varied from one foreleg to the other with extensive multiple lesions of 123 of 205 bones in a half sibling in the first genera...
Zavodovskaya R, Eckert M, Murphy BG, Stover SM, Kol A, Diab S.Silicate associated osteoporosis (SAO) was diagnosed in an adult horse with the shortest documented exposure to cytotoxic silicates of 2 years. The horse was evaluated for a 6-months history of progressive back tenderness and acute onset of lameness. The horse had a marked (4/5) [American Association of Equine Practitioners scale] left forelimb lameness, moderate (2/5) hindlimb ataxia and weakness, and cervical pain upon palpation. Physical examination did not reveal clinical skeletal deformities or respiratory compromise. Radiographs revealed widespread, discrete, sharply delineated, osteoly...
Rawlinson JE, Bass L, Campoy L, Broman A, Prytherch B.To characterize the anatomy of the mental foramen and determine associations with age, weight, sex and breed. Methods: Retrospective descriptive study. Methods: Forty-one horses, 0.6-25.2 years and weighing 136-820 kg. Methods: Computed tomography (CT) studies of equine heads performed over 5 years were evaluated in multiplanar and three-dimensional reconstruction. Measurements obtained were positioning of the foramen along the mandible, foramen height and width, foramen-canal angulation and rostral canal mineralization. Exploratory statistical analyses investigated associations between measu...
Anderson ST, Kidd LJ, Barton AJ, Greer RM.Breeding mares typically foal yearly. Little is known about the dynamics of maternal bone stores during gestation and lactation, the timing of any maternal bone mobilisation, re-accretion post-foaling, or the dynamics of bone metabolism in foals. We measured serum osteocalcin (OC) and serum pyridinoline (PYD) concentrations in 18 mares monthly from 6months gestation to foaling, and in both mares and foals for 4months after birth. From 6 to 11months of gestation, there was no change in mean monthly OC. Serum PYD increased between 7months gestation and foaling. After foaling, mean serum OC was l...
Walsh R, Smith MRW, Wright IM.Osteochondral fragmentation of the dorsoproximal margin of the proximal phalanx is commonly recognised in racing Thoroughbreds. Frequency distribution has been documented in racing Thoroughbreds and Quarter Horses in the USA and in European Warmbloods but no data have been published from the UK. Concurrent intra-articular soft tissue lesions and radiographic accuracy of fragment distribution in racing Thoroughbreds have not previously been reported. Objective: To document frequency distribution of dorsoproximal fragmentation of the proximal phalanx in a UK population of racing Thoroughbreds an...
Hopper N, Singer E, Henson F.The exact aetiology and pathogenesis of microdamage-induced long bone fractures remain unknown. These fractures are likely to be the result of inadequate bone remodelling in response to damage. This study aims to identify an association of osteocyte apoptosis, the presence of osteocytic osteolysis, and any alterations in sclerostin expression with a fracture of the third metacarpal (Mc-III) bone of Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: A total of 30 Mc-III bones were obtained; ten bones were fractured during racing, ten were from the contralateral limb, and ten were from control horses. Each Mc-II...
Liu XX, Pan JF, Zhao QJ, He XH, Pu YB, Han JL, Ma YH, Jiang L.The X chromosome shows a special interaction between demographic factors and genetic variation, and the analysis of X-linked genomic variation can therefore provide insights into the unique effects of demography and selection on the horse genome that cannot be readily detected by autosomal markers. Debao (DB) ponies have experienced intense selective pressure for the development of their small stature (<106 cm at adult height). To identify selective sweeps on the X chromosome of the DB pony, we performed a genome-wide scan of three Chinese horse breeds using an Equine SNP70 BeadChip. Using Yi...
Hanot P, Herrel A, Guintard C, Cornette R.The relationships between the different component parts of organisms, such as the sharing of common development or function, produce a coordinated variation between the different traits. This morphological integration contributes to drive or constrain morphological variation and thus impacts phenotypic diversification. Artificial selection is known to contribute significantly to phenotypic diversification of domestic species. However, little attention has been paid to its potential impact on integration patterns. This study explores the patterns of integration in the limb bones of different ho...
Liuti T, Smith S, Dixon PM.Equine cheek teeth disorders, especially pulpar/apical infections, can have very serious consequences due to the frequent extension of infection to the supporting bones and/or adjacent paranasal sinuses. Limited studies have assessed the accuracy of computed tomographic (CT) imaging in the diagnosis of these disorders, and no study has directly compared imaging and pathological findings of the alveoli of diseased equine cheek teeth. Objective: To validate the accuracy of CT and radiographic imaging of cheek teeth disorders by comparing CT and radiographic imaging, gross and histological findin...
Bergmann W, Bergknut N, Veraa S, Gröne A, Vernooij H, Wijnberg ID, Back W, Grinwis GCM.Equine intervertebral disc degeneration is thought to be rare and of limited clinical relevance, although research is lacking. To objectively assess pathological changes of the equine intervertebral disc and their clinical relevance, description of the normal morphology and a practical, biologically credible grading scheme are needed. The objectives of this study are to describe the gross and histological appearance of the equine intervertebral discs and to propose a grading scheme for macroscopic degeneration. Spinal units from 33 warmblood horses were grossly analyzed and scored. Of the 286 ...
Reisbig NA, Hussein HA, Pinnell E, Bertone AL.OBJECTIVE To create a bioactive synovium scaffold by infusing decellularized synovial-derived extracellular matrix (synECM) with synovial-derived mesenchymal stem cells (synMSCs). SAMPLE Synovium from the femoropatellar and medial femorotibial joints of equine cadavers. PROCEDURES The synMSCs were cultured in monolayer and not treated or cotransduced to enhance expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP) and human bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2. The synECM was decellularized with 0.1% peracetic acid and then seeded with synMSCs (0.5 × 10 cells/0.5 mL) by use of a 30% serum gradient. Sam...
Barrett MF, McIlwraith CW, Contino EK, Park RD, Kawcak CE, Frisbie DD, zumBrunnen JR.OBJECTIVE To investigate potential associations between repository radiographic findings and subsequent performance of Quarter Horses competing in cutting events. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. SAMPLE Repository radiographs (ie, radiographs obtained at the time of sale) for 343 client-owned horses. PROCEDURES Repository radiographic findings were compared with objective measures of performance, including the likelihood of competing; the likelihood of earning money as a 3-year-old, as a 4-year-old, and as a 3- and 4-year-old combined; and the amount of money earned as a 3-year-old, as a 4-y...
Ki HC, Shin EK, Woo EJ, Lee E, Hong JH, Shin DH.Only a few osteological reports describe bone injuries thought to have been caused by falls from horses. Nevertheless, anthropological study alone is insufficient for establishing the correlates of such equestrian accidents. We therefore reviewed the records in Seungjeongwon ilgi (Diaries of the Royal Secretariat) and Joseon wangjo silrok (Annals of the Joseon Dynasty) of the Korea's Joseon period (1392-1910 CE). Although the mechanisms of trauma were diverse, the Joseon documents recorded many injuries caused by horse-riding accidents. During 1625-1872 CE, equestrian-related accidents occurre...
Faramarzi B, Salinger A, Kaneps A, Nout-Lomas Y, Greene H, Dong F. The goal of this study was to quantify external and internal anatomical characteristics of the foal foot throughout the first year of age. Digital radiographs and photographs were taken bimonthly of the forefeet of nine Arabian foals, beginning at about 2 weeks of age until 12 months of age. Sixty-eight linear and angular variables were measured using NIH (National Institutes of Health) software. Statistical analyses were performed using piecewise random coefficient model and -values < 0.05 were considered significant. Distinct changes in hoof development were identified betwe...
Elashry MI, Baulig N, Heimann M, Bernhardt C, Wenisch S, Arnhold S.Adipose tissue derived mesenchymal stem cells (ASCs) may be used to cure bone defects after osteogenic differentiation. In this study we tried to optimize osteogenic differentiation for equine ASCs using various concentrations of CaCl in comparison to the standard osteogenic protocol. ASCs were isolated from subcutaneous adipose tissue from mixed breed horses. The osteogenic induction protocols were (1) the standard osteogenic medium (OM) composed of dexamethasone, ascorbic acid and β-glycerol phosphate; (2) CaCl based protocol composed of 3, 5 and 7.5mM CaCl. Differentiation and proliferatio...
Mendoza L, Franck T, Lejeune JP, Caudron I, Detilleux J, Deliège B, Serteyn D.Osteochondrosis (OC) disease appears to be multifactorial in origin, including skeletal growth rates, nutrition, endocrinological factors, exercise, biomechanics, and other environmental factors. Endocrinological and metabolic factors seem to have an important role in the pathogeny of OC like the Wnt signaling pathway. One of the regulators in the Wnt signaling pathway is the sclerostin glycoprotein. The aim of this study was to investigate the sclerostin blood concentration according to the evolution of the disease, the environment, and the age but also its use as a possible biomarker for OC ...
Martel G, Crowley D, Olive J, Halley J, Laverty S.Extensive osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) lesions of the lateral ridge of the trochlea of the femur (LRTF), the most common OCD-affected site in the stifle, have a poor outcome with surgical debridement and can be career ending. The early detection of osteochondrosis lesions and their conservative management holds the promise to enhance outcome. We hypothesise that ultrasonography is a valuable field screening tool to detect and monitor early subclinical LRTF osteochondrosis. Objective: The goals were to 1) describe the normal ultrasonographic features of the LRTF in foals of different ages an...
Lim CK, Hawkins JF, Vanderpool AL, Heng HG, Gillespie Harmon CC, Lenz SD.Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) is a sequela to osteochondrosis, whereby the cartilage superficial to the site of osteochondrosis fractures and gives rise to osteochondral fragments in the affected joint. In this case, both the radiological and computed tomography findings were supportive of classical severe OCD but the histologic findings were not supportive of the diagnosis of OCD. Methods: A 1 year and 6 months old, Saddlebred, colt was presented for evaluation of chronic cervical pain. Standing laterolateral radiographs revealed an osteochondral fragment with corresponding irregular subc...
Liley H, Zhang J, Firth E, Fernandez J, Besier T.Population variance in bone shape is an important consideration when applying the results of subject-specific computational models to a population. In this letter, we demonstrate the ability of partial least squares regression to provide an improved shape prediction of the equine third metacarpal epiphysis, using two easily obtained measurements.
Lee JY, Na HJ, Kim HM, Lee SC, Lee JY, Chung CP, Seol YJ, Park YJ.The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of equine-derived bone matrix as a carrier for recombinant human platelet-derived growth factor BB (rhPDGF-BB) versus beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) for the treatment of intraosseous periodontal defects in adult patients. This study was performed on 32 adults with advanced periodontal disease. Eligible subjects were randomized in 1:1 ratio into a test (rhPDGF-BB-coated equine-derived bone matrix) or control group (rhPDGF-BB-coated β-TCP). Probing pocket depth (PD), clinical attachment level (CAL), gingival recession (GR), a...
Anastasiou A, Skioldebrand E, Ekman S, Hall LD.The distal row of carpal bones (C2, C3, and C4) from eight left intercarpal joints--four from Standardbred Trotters and four from Swedish Warmblood horses--were used to assess the potential of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging to detect cartilage and bone lesions. The joints used in the study were classified by macroscopic and radiographic examinations as having normal, mild, moderate, or severe articular cartilage lesions and bone sclerosis. Those classifications correlated well with the appearance of the MR images. Bone sclerosis in the MR images was observed as regions of decreased signal int...
Hoppe F.A total of 106 Standardbred Trotters and 27 Swedish Warmblood horses, with a radiological diagnosis of osteochondrosis dissecans, were studied over a six year period. The majority were young horses. No statistical difference in frequency between the sexes was demonstrated. In both breeds osteochondrosis was most common in the hock joints, the site of predilection being the distal dorsal tip of the intermediate tibial ridge. On radiographs the lesions of the hock joints were graded on a scale from 0 to 5 according to size, number and localisation of defects and visible loose bodies. The sizes o...
Mizuno K, Nagatani Y, Yamashita K, Matsukawa M.Ultrasound propagation in cancellous bone (porous media) under the condition of closed pore boundaries was investigated. A cancellous bone and two plate-like cortical bones obtained from a racehorse were prepared. A water-immersion ultrasound technique in the MHz range and a three-dimensional elastic finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method were used to investigate the waves. The experiments and simulations showed a clear separation of the incident longitudinal wave into fast and slow waves. The findings advance the evaluation of bones based on the two-wave phenomenon for in vivo assessment...
Wittwer C, Hamann H, Rosenberger E, Distl O.Heritabilities were estimated for osteochondrosis (OC) in fetlock and hock joints and palmar/plantar osseous fragments in fetlock joints of South German Coldblood (SGC) horses using Residual Maximum Likelihood (REML) under a linear animal model. The analyses were based on the results of a standardized radiographic examination of 167 SGC horses with a mean age of 14 months. The heritabilities linearly estimated and transformed onto the liability scale were for OC in fetlock joints 0.16 and for OC in hock joints 0.04. Considering fetlock and hock OC together, results in a heritability of 0.17. P...
Mair TS, Dyson SJ, Fraser JA, Edwards GB, Hillyer MH, Love S.The case records of 23 horses and one donkey affected by hypertrophic osteopathy (HO) (Marie's disease) were reviewed. All affected animals presented with limb swellings, which were bilaterally symmetrical and usually involved both fore- and hindlimbs. Associated signs included stiffness/lameness and weight loss. Radiological features included periosteal new bone formation over the diaphyses and metaphyses of affected bones. The metacarpal and metatarsal bones were most frequently affected. Articular surfaces remained free of disease. Seventeen animals were destroyed on humane grounds, 3 horse...
Malekipour F, Whitton CR, Lee PV.Subchondral bone injury due to high magnitude and repetition of compressive loading is common in humans and athletic animals such as Thoroughbred racehorses. Repeated loading of the joint surface may alter the subchondral bone microstructure and initiate microdamage in the bone adjacent to the articular cartilage. Understanding the relationship between microdamage, microstructure and mechanical properties of the subchondral bone adjacent to the articular cartilage is, therefore, essential in understanding the mechanism of subchondral bone injury. In this study, we used high-resolution µCT sca...
Tull TM, Bramlage LR.To evaluate the diagnostic features, results of free-choice exercise treatment, prognosis, and postinjury racing performance of Thoroughbred racehorses with cumulative stress-induced bone injury (CSBI) of the distal portion of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones (MC3/MT3). Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 55 Thoroughbred racehorses with CSBI of the distal portion of MC3/MT3. Methods: Data on signalment, history, and radiographic, scintigraphic, and lameness examination findings were reviewed. Horses with lameness localized to the distal portion of MC3/MT3, and that did ...
Sherman KM, Myhre GD, Heymann EI.A 12-year-old Standardbred gelding was referred for swelling of the right metacarpophalangeal joint. Results: Ultrasonography of the right metacarpal area revealed hypoechoic areas in the right digital sheath and metacarpophalangeal joint consistent with synovial effusion. Radiography of the right metacarpophalangeal joint revealed lysis of the axial border of the proximal sesamoid bones. Aspergillus fumigatus was detected on fungal culture of synovial fluid. Results: Regional limb perfusion (150 mg of amikacin in 60 mL of saline [0.9% NaCl] solution perfused for 30 minutes) was performed 2 an...
Schramme M, Kerekes Z, Hunter S, Nagy K, Pease A.Fibrocartilage degeneration is the earliest pathologic finding in navicular disease but remains difficult to detect, even with magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. We hypothesized that injection of the navicular bursa with saline would improve accuracy of MR imaging evaluation of palmar fibrocartilage. Thoracic limbs were collected from 11 horses within 6 h of death. Imaging was performed with a 1.5 T magnet using sagittal 2D proton density and transverse 3D FLASH sequences with fat saturation. For the purpose of determining sensitivity and specificity of the MR images, fibrocartilage was classifi...
Bourzac C, Alexander K, Rossier Y, Laverty S.Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) lesions of the femoropatellar (FP) joint are diagnosed routinely by radiography, but lesions located in the trochlear groove or without accompanying subchondral bone changes can be difficult to visualise. Ultrasonography allows evaluation of articular cartilage and subchondral bone in the FPjoint. Objective: To document the radiographic and ultrasonographic appearance of OCD lesions in the equine FP joint, grade ultrasonographic lesions and compare their accuracy in the diagnosis of these lesions. Methods: The medical records of all horses diagnosed with FP OCD ...
Rubio-Martínez LM, Cruz AM, Gordon K, Hurtig MB.To characterize the microstructure of subchondral bone (SCB) plate and trabecular bone (TBB) of the distopalmar aspect of the condyles of third metacarpal bones (MC3s) from Thoroughbred racehorses at 2 different stages of SCB disease via micro-computed tomography (CT). Methods: 12 pairs of MC3s from Thoroughbred racehorses euthanized for various reasons. Methods: MC3s were collected from horses with mild (n = 6) or severe (6) SCB disease, as determined via micro-CT. Cubic (6 x 6 x 6-cm) specimens of SCB plate and TBB were cut from the palmar aspect of condyles and sagittal ridges and examined ...
Anthenill LA, Stover SM, Gardner IA, Hill AE, Lee CM, Anderson ML, Barr BC, Read DH, Johnson BJ, Woods LW, Daft BM, Kinde H, Moore JD, Farman CA....To determine the distribution for limbs and bones in horses with fractures of the proximal sesamoid bones and relationships with findings on palmarodorsal radiographic images. Methods: Proximal sesamoid bones obtained from both forelimbs of cadavers of 328 racing Thoroughbreds. Methods: Osteophytes; large vascular channels; and fracture location, orientation, configuration, and margin distinctness were categorized by use of high-detail contact palmarodorsal radiographs. Distributions of findings were determined. Relationships between radiographic findings and fracture characteristics were exam...
Orsini JA, Snooks-Parsons C, Stine L, Haddock M, Ramberg CF, Benson CE, Nunamaker DM.We retrospectively reviewed the cases of 15 foals and adult horses in which vancomycin was used, alone or in combination with an aminoglycoside, to treat methicillin-resistant staphylococcal and enterococcal infections. Signalment, presenting complaint, history (including history of treatment for the current complaint), results of bacterial culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing, treatment, and outcome were reviewed. The average vancomycin dosage was 7.5 mg/kg q8h, administered by intravenous infusion over 30 min. The infection resolved in all 7 horses with soft tissue infections and...
Halley SE, Bey MJ, Haladik JA, Lavagnino M, Arnoczky SP.Studies examining the effect of stifle joint angle on tibial rotation, adduction-abduction angle and articular contact area are lacking. Objective: To test the hypothesis that tibial rotation, adduction-abduction angle and articular contact area change with stifle joint angle. Methods: Descriptive study of normal kinematics and articular contact patterns of the equine stifle through the functional range of motion using 3 dimensional (3D) radiosteriometric analysis (RSA) and equine cadaver stifles. Methods: Multiple, radiopaque markers were embedded in the distal femur and proximal tibia and se...
Chiappe A, Gonzalez G, Fradinger E, Iorio G, Ferretti JL, Zanchetta J.In this study, we assessed the potential value of free serum osteocalcin or bone gla protein (BGP), the most abundant non collagenous matrix protein found in bone and dentin, to reflect changes of bone turnover in thoroughbred horses. Levels of osteocalcin were analyzed in serum samples of 54 clinically normal animals divided into three groups (A, B, C) according to age: 8, 16-18 and 24-36 months, in order to determine the standard for young horses of different age and sex. Serum BGP was measured by an in-house developed double antibody radioimmunoassay using bovine antigen. The mean BGP level...
Cousty M, Retureau C, Tricaud C, Geffroy O, Caure S.The radiographs of 102 French trotters presented with signs of back pain were reviewed retrospectively, and a control group of 16 French trotters without back pain was analysed. The age, sex, type of race, number of starts, earnings and index of performance were recorded. Radiological evaluation was performed from the 14th thoracic (T14) to the third lumbar (L3) vertebra. Impingement of the spinous processes (ISP), periarticular proliferation of synovial intervertebral articulations (PP-SIA) and sclerosis of SIA (S-SIA) were located and graded. Radiological lesions were identified in 10 (62 pe...
Yamada K, Sato F, Higuchi T, Nishihara K, Kayano M, Sasaki N, Nambo Y.Bone mineral density (BMD) is one of the indications of the strength and health. BMD measured by quantitative computed tomography (QCT) was compared with that measured by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and radiographic bone aluminum equivalence (RBAE). Limbs were removed from horses that had been euthanized for reasons not associated with this study. Sixteen limbs (left and right metacarpals and metatarsals) from 4 horses were used to compare BMD as measured by QCT with those measured by DXA and RBAE. There was a strong correlation between BMD values measured by QCT and those measured ...
Tucker R, Hall YS, Hughes TK, Parker RA.Computed tomography (CT) imaging of the cervical spine of mature horses under general anaesthesia is becoming increasingly accessible. Osteochondral fragmentation (OF) of the cervical articular process joints (APJs) has been identified on CT imaging; the prevalence, clinical features and significance of this finding are currently unknown. Objective: To describe the prevalence and clinical features of a population of horses with CT evidence of OF within the cervical APJs. Methods: Retrospective, descriptive case series. Methods: The study population consisted of all horses undergoing CT imaging...
Jørgensen HS, Proschowsky H, Falk-Rønne J, Willeberg P, Hesselholt M.A retrospective cohort study was made of the racing performance of trotters which had been subjected routinely to radiography before they started training and racing. Sixty-one per cent (148) of the 243 horses, foaled in 3 consecutive years, had one or more abnormal findings categorised into 5 relevant groups based on radiography, of which osteochondrosis (OCD) was the most specific diagnosis. Parameters used to reflect racing performance were: proportion of horses starting in races, number of starts per year, earnings per year, earnings per start and racing longevity. No significant associati...
Adams K, Schulz-Kornas E, Arzi B, Failing K, Vogelsberg J, Staszyk C.It has been assumed that dental conditions cause disorders of the equine temporomandibular joint (TMJ), due to biomechanical overload or aberrant loading. However, the incidence of published TMJ disorders in horses is low and this leads to the question whether the equine TMJ is adapted well to its biomechanical requirements or is able to remodel its articular surfaces in response to modified loading conditions. The aim of this study was to determine the histological characteristics of healthy equine TMJs. The tissue components of the articular surfaces of 10 TMJs obtained from horses without a...
Smith MR, Wright IM.Fractures of the proximal phalanx are generally considered to result from monotonic supraphysiological loads, but radiological observations from clinical cases suggest there may be a stress-related aetiology. Objective: To determine whether there are radiologically identifiable prodromal changes in Thoroughbred racehorses with confirmed parasagittal fractures of the proximal phalanx. Methods: Retrospective cross-sectional study. Methods: Case records and radiographs of Thoroughbred racehorses with parasagittal fractures of the proximal phalanx were analysed. Thickness of the subchondral bone p...
Tidswell HK, Innes JF, Avery NC, Clegg PD, Barr AR, Vaughan-Thomas A, Wakley G, Tarlton JF.Fatigue fracture of cuboidal bones occurs in the human foot as well as the equine carpus. The racehorse provides a naturally-occurring model to study the effects of high-intensity exercise on the morphology and metabolism of cuboidal bones. We studied both the mineral and the collagenous matrix of the third (C(3)) and radial (C(r)) carpal bones of raced and non-raced Thoroughbred (TB) horses. We hypothesised that racehorses would show increases in the mineral component of these bones and post-translational modifications of the collagenous matrix alongside changes in markers of collagen remodel...
Mayhew IG, Donawick WJ, Green SL, Galligan DT, Stanley EK, Osborne J.Over a period of 5 years on a central Kentucky Thoroughbred stud farm 132 foals were evaluated for the presence of cervical vertebral malformation (CVM). Lateral cervical vertebral radiographs were obtained on 70 standing foals. These radiographs were evaluated semi-quantitatively and scored numerically for the presence of stenosis of the vertebral canal, enlarged physeal growth plates, caudal extension of the dorsal border of the orifice of the vertebral canal, angular fixation, delayed ossification of bone and degenerative joint disease. From these scores a total CVM score was given for each...
Lanovaz JL, Khumsap S, Clayton HM, Stick JA, Brown J.The tarsal joint is a common site of injury for many sport horses. Understanding the biomechanics of this complex joint begins with developing a clear picture of the kinematics during normal locomotion. This study describes the 3D kinematics of the tarsal joint by measuring the motion of the tibia and third metatarsus in 4 sound Quarter Horses with targets attached directly to the bones via steel pins. The objective was to determine if the tarsus had significant motion outside the tarsocrural joint. Two Steinmann pins were inserted into the lateral side of the right hindlimb and marker triads ...
de Preux M, Vidondo B, Koch C.To determine the influence of a purpose-built frame on the accuracy of screw placement during computer-assisted orthopedic surgery (CAOS) of the equine extremity. Methods: Experimental cadaveric study. Methods: Twenty-four paired equine cadaveric limbs obtained from seven horses. Methods: Three 4.5-mm cortex screws were inserted in lag technique in three different planes of orientation in the proximal phalanx (P1) by means of CAOS. In the study group (n = 12 limbs), the tracker was anchored on a purpose-built frame designed to stabilize the extremity. In the control group (n = 12 limbs), a con...
Boström A, Asplund K, Bergh A, Hyytiäinen H.To explore the scientific evidence for therapeutic ultrasound (TU), we conducted a systematic review of the literature on TU in dogs, horses, donkeys, and cats. Methods: In three major databases, relevant articles published in 1980-2020 were identified. The risk of bias in each article was evaluated. Results: Twenty-four relevant articles on the effects of TU in dogs, nine in horses, two in donkeys, and one in cats were identified. TU usually involved 2-6 treatments weekly for up to 4 weeks. Articles on tendon, ligament, and bone healing, acute aseptic arthritis, osteoarthritis, paraparesis, h...
Brianza S, Brighenti V, Lansdowne JL, Schwieger K, Bouré L.The transfixation pin cast (TPC) is an external skeletal fixation technique used to treat horses with distal limb fractures, but its use is often associated with pin-loosening and an increased risk of treatment failure. To address implant loosening, the pin sleeve cast system (PSC) was recently designed and consists of a pin-sleeve unit inserted into the bone. Each pin runs through a sleeve placed in the bone, making contact at two fixed points only within the sleeve. Each pin is attached to a ring embedded in a resin cast. In this report, the mechanical performance of a traditional TPC pin ar...
Carstens A, Kirberger RM, Velleman M, Dahlberg LE, Fletcher L, Lammentausta E.Osteoarthritis of the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joints is one of the major causes of poor performance in horses. Delayed gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of cartilage (dGEMRIC) may be a useful technique for noninvasively quantifying articular cartilage damage in horses. The purpose of this study was to describe dGEMRIC characteristics of the distal metacarpus3/metatarsus3 (Mc3/Mt3) articular cartilage in 20 cadaver specimens collected from normal Thoroughbred horses. For each specimen, T1 relaxation time was measured from scans acquired precontrast and at 30, 60, 120, and 180...
Haussler KK, Stover SM, Willits NH.To describe the incidence and types of gross osseous developmental variations and ages of physeal closure in the caudal portion of the thoracic and lumbosacral spine and the pelvis in a sample of Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Thoroughbred racehorses (n = 36) that died or were euthanatized at California racetracks between October 1993 and July 1994. Methods: Lumbosacropelvic specimens were collected, and all soft tissues were removed. The osseous specimens were visually examined. Results: Only 22 (61%) specimens had the expected number of 6 lumbar and 5 sacral vertebrae. Eight (22%) specime...
Tyson R, Graham JP, Colahan PT, Berry CR.An 8-month-old miniature horse filly was presented for evaluation of severe rotational and angular limb deformities of the thoracic and pelvic limbs. On radiographic examination, complete ulnas and fibulas were identified. These findings are consistent with a condition previously described as a form of atavism. The term atavism is used to describe the reappearance of a trait or character that was seen in all earlier evolutionary specimens of a particular species, but has not been seen in recent ancestors. The atavistic traits of complete ulnas and fibulas have previously been described in Wels...
