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Topic:Diagnostic Imaging
Diagnostic imaging in horses encompasses a range of techniques used to visualize the internal structures of the equine body for the purpose of diagnosis and treatment planning. These techniques include radiography, ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and nuclear scintigraphy. Each modality offers unique advantages in assessing different tissues and conditions, such as bone fractures, soft tissue injuries, and joint abnormalities. Radiography is commonly employed for evaluating bone structures, while ultrasonography is frequently used for soft tissue assessment. MRI and CT provide detailed cross-sectional images, facilitating the examination of complex anatomical regions. Nuclear scintigraphy can detect areas of increased bone activity, often used in lameness evaluations. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the applications, advancements, and comparative effectiveness of diagnostic imaging modalities in equine veterinary practice.
Retrospective comparison of equine hemoglobin oxygen saturation measured by a human-specific co-oximeter, or derived from an algorithm using temperature-corrected and -uncorrected oxygen tension. Hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SO) is measured by co-oximetry (SO) or calculated from partial pressure of oxygen (PO) using algorithms (SO). To compare venous and systemic arterial blood sample data retrospectively and to examine whether temperature correction of PO is important. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: A group of 21 healthy, adult, sedated or anesthetized horses. Methods: Mixed-venous and systemic arterial blood samples (1 mL) were anaerobically collected using commercial preheparinized syringes from the right ventricle and facial artery, respectively. Blood was analyzed using a...
Evaluation of automated erythrocyte methodology in new world camelids using the ADVIA 2120 hematology analyzer. Accurate erythrocyte measurements with ADVIA hematology analyzers require isovolumetric cell sphering in one reaction and hemolysis in another. However, camelid erythrocytes are resistant to sphering and osmotic lysis, and no published evaluation of ADVIA methods for camelids exists. Objective: The objectives were to demonstrate whether camelid erythrocytes sphere in the ADVIA red blood cell/platelet (RBC/PLT) reagent and lyse in the ADVIA cyanide HGB reagent, and to determine optimal ADVIA settings for camelids. Methods: Camelid and canine blood were diluted to 1:625 in RBC/PLT reagent and ev...
Ultrasound-Guided Inferior Alveolar Nerve Block in the Horse: Assessment of the Extraoral Approach in Cadavers. Blinded techniques to desensitize the inferior alveolar nerve (IAN) include intraoral, angled, and vertical extraoral approaches with reported success rates of 100%, 73%, and 59%, respectively. It has not been determined whether an ultrasound-guided extraoral approach is feasible. Further, the fascicular nature of the inferior alveolar and lingual nerves of the horse has not been described. The objectives of this study were to describe a low-volume ultrasound-guided vertical extraoral inferior alveolar nerve block technique and to describe the fascicular nature of these nerves. An ultrasound-g...
Update on Surgical Treatment of Wobblers. Cervical vertebral compressive myelopathy (CVCM) represents the most significant disease of the spinal cord in horses for which surgical treatment is described. Current surgical methods used include ventral interbody fusion with kerf cut cylinders and dorsal laminectomy. Polyaxial pedicle screw and rod constructs and ventral locking compression plating have been introduced in the treatment of equine CVCM and present promising alternative approaches to achieve ventral interbody fusion. Advancements in diagnostic imaging and endoscopy of the cervical vertebral canal may improve reliable preopera...
Intermediate patellar ligament desmopathy often occurs in conjunction with other stifle abnormalities. Intermediate patellar ligament (IPL) desmopathy is a relatively uncommon injury previously reported to have a poor prognosis for return to athletic activity. There is little documentation of the clinical and ultrasonographic features, clinical significance, and outcome for return to work following IPL injury in horses. The aim of this retrospective descriptive study was to describe the clinical and ultrasonographic features of IPL desmopathy, its association with other injuries of the stifle, and outcome for return to work following injury. Forty-two stifles with an ultrasound diagnosis of IPL...
Synovial sepsis of unknown origin in the adult Thoroughbred racehorse. Synovial sepsis of unknown origin is a rare cause of lameness in the adult horse, and a haematogenous pathogenesis has been proposed in previous cases. Objective: To describe the features and outcome of synovial sepsis of unknown origin in adult Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Hospital records for admissions between 2005 and 2015 were reviewed to identify adult horses diagnosed with synovial sepsis of unknown origin. Presentation, clinicopathological, microbiological and diagnostic imaging findings were recorded. Treatment methods, surgical findings, compl...
Surgical Treatment of an Osseous Cyst-Like Lesion in the Middle Phalanx Communicating With the Distal Interphalangeal Joint of a Horse. Subchondral or osseous cyst-like lesions within the distal aspect of the middle phalanx are not commonly reported in equids. These osseous lesions, which can communicate with the distal interphalangeal joint, can result in significant lameness and may not respond well to medical management. This report describes the clinical, diagnostic imaging, and surgical management of a 4-year-old mixed breed gelding where medical management of a chronic subchondral osseous cyst-like lesion of the middle phalanx, which communicated with the distal interphalangeal joint, was unsuccessful. A successful outco...
Diagnosis and treatment of confirmed and suspected primary hyperparathyroidism in equids: 17 cases (1999-2016). Primary hyperparathyroidism is uncommon in equids. Objective: To describe the diagnostic findings and efficacy of treatment in equids with primary hyperparathyroidism. Methods: Retrospective case series describing 16 horses and one mule. Methods: Cases were identified by retrospective review of records at Cornell University and via an ACVIM listserv query. Inclusion criteria were an equid with hypercalcemia, normal renal function and high parathyroid hormone (PTH) or histopathological diagnosis of a parathyroid adenoma. Equids with normal PTH and PTH-related protein (PTHrP) in the face of hype...
A Computed Tomographic and Pathological Study of Equine Cheek Teeth Infundibulae Extracted From Asymptomatic Horses. Part 2: MicroCT, Gross, and Histological Findings. Equine maxillary cheek teeth infundibulae are frequently affected by developmental and acquired disorders, but the imaging, gross, and histological features of normal and abnormal infundibulae remain incompletely understood. To perform MicroCT, gross examination, and histology on sectioned teeth and compare the imaging and anatomical findings. original study. Eight maxillary cheek teeth of different ages and with varying grades of unilateral ( = 5) or bilateral ( = 3) occlusal infundibular caries were extracted from equine heads obtained from an abattoir. The teeth were imaged by MicroCT,...
A Computed Tomographic (CT) and Pathological Study of Equine Cheek Teeth Infundibulae Extracted From Asymptomatic Horses. Part 1: Prevalence, Type and Location of Infundibular Lesions on CT Imaging. Equine maxillary cheek teeth infundibulae are frequently affected by developmental and acquired disorders, but the computed tomographic (CT) imaging features of normal and abnormal infundibulae remain incompletely understood. To examine infundibulae with various grades of occlusal caries and control teeth by standard CT in order to assess the prevalence, type and location of subocclusal infundibular lesions present. original study. One hundred maxillary cheek teeth, including 82 with, and 18 without infundibular occlusal caries, were extracted from horses of different ages and imaged by s...
Surgical enlargement of the nasomaxillary aperture and transnasal conchotomy of the ventral conchal sinus: Two surgical techniques to improve sinus drainage in horses. To evaluate 2 surgical techniques for establishing and/or improving paranasal sinus drainage in cadaver heads and horses with sinusitis and evaluate the feasibility of postoperative transnasal sinus endoscopy. Methods: Ex vivo study (equine cadaver heads) and case series. Methods: Nine adult equine cadaver heads and 8 horses with recurrent sinusitis. Methods: For the ex vivo study, the following procedures were performed on 9 cadaver heads: preoperative and postoperative computed tomography (heads 1-6), endoscopy-guided transnasal conchotomy of the ventral conchal sinus (TCVCS) and surgical en...
Diagnostic value of noninvasive pulse pressure measurements in Warmblood horses with aortic regurgitation. Noninvasive blood pressures (NIBP) and pulse pressures (PP) have not been published in horses with aortic and mitral regurgitation (AR or MR). Objective: To investigate NIBP and PP in healthy Warmblood horses and horses with AR and MR and propose PP cutoffs to identify and stage AR severity. Methods: Seventy-three Warmblood horses (healthy, 10; AR, 31; MR, 32). Methods: Retrospective study. All horses had NIBP and an echocardiogram recorded. Cases were categorized based on severity of regurgitation. Pulse pressures were compared among healthy, MR, and AR groups and among AR severity groups. Cu...
Neuroanatomy of the equine brain as revealed by high-field (3Tesla) magnetic-resonance-imaging. In this study, the morphology of the horse brain (Equus caballus) is decribed in detail using high field MRI. The study includes sagittal, dorsal, and transverse T2-weighted images at 0.25 mm resolution at 3 Tesla and 3D models of the brain presenting the external morphology of the brain. Representative gallocyanin stained histological slides of the same brain are presented. The images represent a useful tool for MR image interpretation in horses and may serve as a starting point for further research aiming at in vivo analysis in this species.
Erythrocytosis and fatigue fractures associated with hepatoblastoma in a 3-year-old gelding. Hepatoblastoma was diagnosed in a 3-year-old Thoroughbred gelding presented with forelimb lameness with bilateral fatigue fractures of the proximal third metacarpal bones. An abdominal mass was detected on ultrasound examination of the abdomen. Absolute erythrocytosis was diagnosed after clinical and haematological evaluation. The fractured metacarpal bones were surgically removed but complications after surgery were fatal. The liver mass was diagnosed as a hepatoblastoma based on histology and immunochemical staining. The combination of hepatoblastoma and fatigue fractures has not been descri...
Transcutaneous Ultrasonography Is a Feasible Method for Characterizing the Cricoarytenoideus Dorsalis Muscle in Horses. Assessment of the cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle (CAD) in horses using a transesophageal ultrasound, computed tomography, or magnetic resonance imaging is available in a limited number of hospitals. This study assessed the ease of ultrasonographic imaging of the CAD using an external transcutaneous technique in horses. After confirmation of the CAD in the cadavers, ultrasonography in twenty live horses was carried out using a transcutaneous approach. In live horses, ultrasonographic imaging of the CAD was possible by pushing the larynx from the opposite side with the other hand. It is belie...
Standing magnetic resonance imaging of distal phalanx fractures in 6 cases of Thoroughbred racehorse. Six Thoroughbred racehorses with palmar process fractures of the distal phalanx were evaluated with standing magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI). In all the cases, the fractures were detectable on T1-weighted images and fat-suppressed images. Furthermore, multi-planar reconstruction images were useful for assessing the articular involvement of the fractures. Follow-up sMRI was obtainable in 3 cases, which revealed that the area of high signal intensity on fat-suppressed images decreased over time as symptoms improved. Our findings support the use of sMRI for the detailed evaluation of distal pha...
Use of non-contrast-enhanced computed tomography to identify deep digital flexor tendinopathy in horses with lameness: 28 cases (2014-2016). To describe the use of non-contrast-enhanced CT to identify deep digital flexor (DDF) tendinopathy in horses with lameness attributed to pain in regions distal to the metatarsophalangeal or metacarpophalangeal joints. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 28 client-owned horses. Methods: Medical records were searched to identify horses that underwent non-contrast-enhanced CT with or without high-field MRI as part of an evaluation for lameness localized to areas distal to the metacarpophalangeal or metatarsophalangeal joint in ≥ 1 limb. Horses were included in the study if they had ≥...
The Risk of a Shod and Unshod Horse Kick to Create Orbital Fractures in Equine Cadaveric Skulls. The aim of this study was to compare the potential of an unshod and shod hoof to cause an orbital fracture in the event of a kick. Methods: Thirty-four equine cadaveric orbitae were exposed to a steel or horn impactor in a dropping test set-up. An impactor velocity of 7 m/s was used for both materials. Testing was repeated on the same orbit at a velocity of 10 m/s with the horn impactor if no damage occurred. A high-speed camera was used to analyse the impact process. Physical parameters (peak force and impact duration) were calculated based on quantitative video-tracking. Computed tomog...
Gastrointestinal effects of general anaesthesia in horses undergoing non abdominal surgery: focus on the clinical parameters and ultrasonographic images. The ultrasonographic images of the gastrointestinal tract in horses can be influenced by fasting and sedation but the proper effect of general anaesthesia (GA) on them has not been determined yet. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of GA on ultrasonographic images of the gastrointestinal tract in horses and to compare these effects with a clinical evaluation. Twenty horses undergoing non-abdominal surgeries were evaluated by ultrasonography before and 4 times within 24 h after GA. Each ultrasonographic exam focused on the stomach, the duodenum and on 5 locations on the jejunum. The fou...
Cardiac Monitoring in Horses. Monitoring variables of cardiac performance in horses is challenging owing to patient size, temperament, and anatomic peculiarities. Blood pressure is a major determinant of afterload, but it is not a reliable surrogate of cardiac performance and tissue perfusion. Cardiac output, together with arterial and venous oxygen content, provides insight as to the adequacy of delivery of blood and oxygen to the body as a whole and can be used to gauge the fluid responsiveness and cardiovascular status of the patient. Measurement of intracardiac pressures serves to assess cardiac filling pressures, myoc...
Artifact Induced by a Transponder During In Vivo Magnetic Resonance Imaging on Horse Brain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is now widely used in equine veterinary practice. However, the mandatory European legislation regarding horse identification imposes the implantation of a transponder within the fatty tissue of the neck cervical ligament. While performing brain MRI for scientific purposes in ponies, we faced artifacts produced by such transponder and reported here this problem. Indeed, pony mares were anesthetized for 2 hours and placed, bedded on their back, in a 3T MRI scanner. A four-element flexible antenna positioned around the head was used. Three MRI sequences were perfo...
Evaluation of pulse co-oximetry to determine haemoglobin saturation with oxygen and haemoglobin concentration in anaesthetized horses: a retrospective study. This study compared the values of variables measured by pulse co-oximetry (Masimo Radical 7; Masimo Europe Limited, UK) with those measured by a co-oximeter-enabled blood gas analyser (Siemens Rapid-point 500; Siemens Healthcare Limited, UK) in anaesthetized horses. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: A total of 30 anaesthetized horses. Methods: In total, 47 heparinized arterial blood samples were collected for blood gas analysis to determine haemoglobin concentration (tHb, g L) and percentage of haemoglobin saturation with oxygen (SaO). Arterial haemoglobin saturation with oxygen was deter...
Comparative efficacy of two-dimensional mode and color Doppler sonography in predicting gender of the equine fetus. Ultrasonographic fetal sexing is of utmost economic importance for horse breeders. Relatively, a few studies have been conducted to determine fetal sex in mare using transrectal Doppler ultrasound. This study aimed to compare two sexing techniques, two-dimensional (2D) mode and color Doppler ultrasonography. Methods: The study was conducted on 39 mares under field conditions. Examinations were performed using the ultrasonic model device (Medison SonoAce Pico, South Korea), equipped with real-time 3-7 MHz convex multifrequency transducer. Fetal sex diagnosis was carried out in two periods of pr...
Enhanced ultrasonographic imaging of the equine distal limb using saline injection of the digital flexor tendon sheath: A cadaver study. Injuries to the structures within the digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS) can lead to lameness with a variable degree of effusion in horses. In some cases, effusion is absent or minimal, and this may be related to the chronicity and type of injury, or veterinary interventions. The purpose of this study was to determine if saline injection into the DFTS would improve ultrasonographic and magnetic resonance imaging of the distal limb without introducing artifact. Nine normal equine cadaver forelimbs were collected. Non-weight-bearing ultrasonographic and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinat...
Fluoroscopically guided neocanalization for treatment of nasolacrimal atresia in two horses. A yearling Thoroughbred stallion and an 8-year-old Saddlebred mare were evaluated for persistent mucoid ocular discharge. Results: Examination of both horses revealed copious yellow-tan mucoid ocular discharge with a negative Jones I test, absent nasal punctum, and unsuccessful anterograde nasolacrimal duct (NLD) irrigation. Clinical abnormalities were present on the right side only in one horse and bilaterally in the other. Computed tomography (CT) with contrast confirmed nasolacrimal duct atresia in both horses. Results: Under general anesthesia, the affected NLD was catheterized anterograde...
Evaluation of equine corneal disease using spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). The purpose of this case series is to evaluate the use of spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) imaging in equine corneal disease to demonstrate the feasibility, diagnostic effectiveness, and limitations of this imaging modality. Methods: Retrospective study: Handheld SD-OCT (Envisu, Bioptigen Inc, Morrisville, NC) was used for high-resolution imaging of horses with corneal disease presenting to the North Carolina State University Equine Ophthalmology Service from 2013 to 2018. Results: Fourteen horses were included in this study, including six horses with corneal ulceration, t...
Usefulness of caudomedial-craniolateral oblique radiographic views for the diagnosis of injury to the origin of the cranial cruciate ligament in two horses. CASE DESCRIPTION A 12-year-old mixed-breed mare (horse 1) and 6-year-old Friesian gelding (horse 2) were examined for chronic lameness associated with the stifle joint. CLINICAL FINDINGS Lameness examination revealed effusion of the right (horse 1) or left (horse 2) femoropatellar and medial femorotibial joints and grade 3/5 (horse 1) or 4/5 (horse 2) lameness. A diagnosis of cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) injury with associated mineralization and avulsion (horse 1) or mineralization alone (horse 2) was facilitated in both horses with a caudomedial-craniolateral oblique radiographic view obta...
Computed tomographic dimensions of the normal adult equine eye. There are limited data on whether the dimensions of the equine eye and its internal structures change with bodyweight in horses. The aim of this study was to identify whether the size of the equine eye and its individual structures varied in a predictable manner with bodyweight, and to examine the reliability of computed tomography (CT) scans in the measurement of the equine eye. Ninety horses which had undergone CT examination of the head for non-ocular disease were included. All measurements of the eye were performed twice on all eyes by the same operator to quantify intra-operator agreement...
Assessing the Effect of Packing the Sulcus on Image Quality in Equine Digital Radiography. The requirement to pack the sulcus of the equine foot as an aid to diagnostic interpretation before acquisition of dorsoproximal-palmarodistal oblique projections is debatable. The purpose of this study was to investigate the benefit of packing the sulcus in the assessment of normal anatomy. 23 cadaver limbs were radiographed in a podoblock (https://www.podoblock.com/products-page/podoblock/podoblock/) A non-packed image (NP) and a packed image (P) of the same foot were acquired. The image quality of P was graded against the reference NP by five observers, where -1=P was superior, 0=no differe...
Three-dimensional CT observation of position and movability of the scapula in the horse using carcasses of Falabella. The three-dimensionally real position and movement of the scapula in the lateral side of the ribcage could not be clarified in the horse, since the body size of the horse is too large to apply the CT scanning and image analysis methods. In this study, therefore, we examined the position and the movability of scapula using a carcass of the Falabella which is one of the smallest breeds of the horse. The whole skeletal system in thoracic part of the Falabella could be three-dimensionally observed by CT scanning method. The three-dimensional images show that the scapula cranially slides and the ve...
