Exercise in horses encompasses the physical activities that horses engage in, either through natural behaviors or structured training programs. These activities impact a horse's musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems, influencing overall health and performance. Exercise can vary in intensity, duration, and frequency, and its effects are studied to understand conditioning, endurance, and recovery processes in equines. Research in this field often focuses on the physiological adaptations to different types of exercise, the prevention of exercise-related injuries, and the optimization of training regimens for various equestrian disciplines. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the physiological, biomechanical, and health-related aspects of exercise in horses.
Ebert M, Moore-Colyer MJS.The aim of this study was to estimate the energy requirements of performance horses in active, variable training in the field. Sixty horses in England and Switzerland were measured over 2-wk periods and, for 15 of these, the measurement period was extended, ranging from 21 to 42 wk. Energy intake was estimated by measuring daily feed consumption. Energy output was measured using heart rate (HR) monitors during 608 training sessions, relating HR to volume of oxygen (VO₂) and converting VO₂ to energy. Field maintenance requirements were calculated by deducting the marginal energy cost of tra...
Szemplinski KL, Thompson A, Cherry N, Guay K, Smith WB, Brady J, Jones T.The objective of this study was to determine if transportation and exercise stress in horses affect the microflora populations in the equine hindgut. Four horses were subjected to three transport periods (0, 3, and 6 hours) with a 7-d rest period between each transport. Horses were fed 0.91 kg/day of Purina Impact All Stages 12% and had ad libitum access to Cynodon dactylon (Coastal Bermudagrass) hay. Fecal samples were collected before (0 hours) and after (48 hours) transport. In addition, three horses underwent a different standardized exercise test with a 7-d rest period between each ex...
Arfuso F, Giannetto C, Fazio F, Panzera F, Piccione G.Physiological and hematochemical changes associated with exercise have been extensively investigated in equine species. It is known that stress elevates circulating levels of acute phase proteins (APPs). This survey evaluated whether horses trained with different training programs exhibit changes in APP levels after exercise event. Twenty Saddle Italian horses (11 geldings and 9 females, 9 ± 1 years old, body weight of 425 ± 35 kg) were divided into two equal groups according to the intensity of training programs they were subjected: group A was subjected to an intense training program, gr...
Kiely M, Warrington G, McGoldrick A, Cullen S.Kiely, M, Warrington, G, McGoldrick, A, and Cullen, S. Physical preparation strategies of professional jockeys. J Strength Cond Res 36(11): 3184-3189, 2022-Professional horse racing is a physically demanding sport. The aim of the study was to examine the physical preparation strategies of jockeys for racing. A questionnaire was developed and validated which comprised of 4 sections; (a) background information, (b) making weight and current associated exercise habits, (c) current physical activity practices, and (d) jockey perceptions of strength and conditioning (S&C) and current practices....
Bruschetta G, D'Ascola A, Medica P, Ferlazzo AM.Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) may induce metabolic effects in different cell types, including leukocytes. In horses, 5-HT is involved in physiological and behavioral functions. Physical exercise is known to increase the amounts of 5-HT both in brain and periphery, but so far, the signal mechanism in response to exercise is not known. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of a racehorse intensive training session on plasma 5-HT levels, serotonin transporter (SERT), 5HT, 5-HT, 5-HT, 5-HT receptor, interleukin-1 beta, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha expression in horse perip...
Hardeman AM, Byström A, Roepstorff L, Swagemakers JH, van Weeren PR, Serra Bragança FM.Clinical assessment of spinal motion in horses is part of many routine clinical exams but remains highly subjective. A prerequisite for the quantification of spinal motion is the assessment of the expected normal range of motion and variability of back kinematics. The aim of this study was to objectively quantify spinal kinematics and between -measurement, -surface and -day variation in owner-sound horses. In an observational study, twelve owner-sound horses were trotted 12 times on four different paths (hard/soft straight line, soft lunge left and right). Measurements were divided over three ...
Wilk I, Wnuk-Pawlak E, Janczarek I, Kaczmarek B, Dybczyńska M, Przetacznik M.It was assumed that a horse with its rider body weight found in the upper limit may negatively impact the horse's welfare. The objective of this paper was to analyze the differences in body temperature and selected heart rate parameters in horses in response to physical exercise accompanied by various rider's body weight loads. The study was carried out on 12 leisure, 10-15-year-old warmblood geldings. The horses were ridden by two equally qualified riders whose body weights were about 20% and 10% of the average body weight (BW) of the animals (about 470 kg). Each rider rode each of the 12 hor...
Kim DH, Lee HG, Sp N, Kang DY, Jang KJ, Lee HK, Cho BW, Yang YM.To understand the athletic characteristics of Thoroughbreds, high-throughput analysis has been conducted using horse muscle tissue. However, an in vitro system has been lacking for studying and validating genes from in silico data. The aim of this study is to validate genes from differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of our previous RNA-sequencing data in vitro. Also, we investigated the effects of exercise-induced stress including heat, oxidative, hypoxic and cortisol stress on horse skeletal muscle derived cells with the top six upregulated genes of DEGs. Enriched pathway analysis was conduct...
Allen KJ, Fitzharris LE, McConnell AK.Inspiratory muscle training applies a training stimulus directly to the inspiratory muscles and is distinct from whole-body training. The potential benefits of inspiratory muscle training have yet to be explored in horses. Objective: The objectives were as follows: (a) to develop an equine-specific method of testing and training inspiratory muscles; (b) to assess tolerance and feasibility in a pilot study in a commercial Thoroughbred training establishment. Methods: Field study. Methods: A mask was used to interface commercial human inspiratory muscle training equipment. Ten horses undertook i...
Kau S, Potz IK, Pospisil K, Sellke L, Schramel JP, Peham C.Bit configuration and acting rein forces play a crucial role in oral health and comfort of ridden horses. Although it is a big animal welfare issue, dynamic response of horses to different bits has yet not been thoroughly investigated. This convenience sample experimental study describes a model to overcome the almost uncontrollable influence of riders on rein tension and evaluates self-controlled maximum side rein tension of ten sound horses randomly bitted with a double-jointed (DJS) and a version of a Mullen mouth snaffle-bit under unridden conditions. Horses were exercised at walk and trot...
Santschi EM, Whitman JL, Prichard MA, Lopes MAF, Pigott JH, Brokken MT, Jenson PW, Johnson CR, Morrow C, Brusie RW, Juzwiak JS, Morehead JP.To describe subchondral lucencies (SCL) in the equine proximal tibia, several treatment options, and clinical outcomes. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: Seventeen horses with proximal tibial SCL. Methods: Medical record and radiograph review. Follow-up was obtained via examination and radiography when possible and by telephone and race records when required. The median duration of follow-up was 20 months (range, 0-48). Results: Proximal tibial SCL were associated with lameness in 14 of 17 horses. Subchondral lucencies were primary in 11 horses and secondary to an ipsilateral medial fem...
Saitua A, Becero M, Argüelles D, Castejón-Riber C, Sánchez de Medina A, Satué K, Muñoz A.Horse trainers often claim that exercise on a water treadmill (WT) leads to a greater muscle power and development compared to terrestrial locomotion, because of the greater viscosity of water compared to air. This research assesses locomotor changes measured with accelerometers fixed in the pectoral region and in the sacrum midline in six horses subjected to exercise sessions of 40 min duration on a WT without water (DT), and with water at the depth of fetlock (FET) and carpus (CAR) with velocities of 6 km/h and at the depth of stifle (STF) at 5 km/h. Another five horses performed the same ex...
Paine SW, Bright J, Scarth JP, Hincks PR, Pearce CM, Hannan C, Machnik M, Hillyer L.In equine and racing practice, detomidine and butorphanol are commonly used in combination for their sedative properties. The aim of the study was to produce detection times to better inform European veterinary surgeons, so that both drugs can be used appropriately under regulatory rules. Three independent groups of 7, 8 and 6 horses, respectively, were given either a single intravenous administration of butorphanol (100 µg/kg), a single intravenous administration of detomidine (10 µg/kg) or a combination of both at 25 (butorphanol) and 10 (detomidine) µg/kg. Plasma and urine concentratio...
Garber A, Hastie P, Murray JA.Gastrointestinal microbiota play a crucial role in nutrient digestion, maintaining animal health and welfare. Various factors may affect microbial balance often leading to disturbances that may result in debilitating conditions such as colic and laminitis. The invention of next-generation sequencing technologies and bioinformatics has provided valuable information on the effects of factors influencing equine gut microbiota. Among those factors are nutrition and management (e.g., diet, supplements, exercise), medical substances (e.g., antimicrobials, anthelmintics, anesthetics), animal-related ...
Trindade PHE, Hartmann E, Keeling LJ, Andersen PH, Ferraz GC, Paranhos da Costa MJR.The horses' responses to exercise are commonly monitored using physiological variables, nonetheless physical and mental states can also be expressed through body language. The aims of this study were: (i) to identify how facial expressions and other behavioural variables change in ranch horses after a routine workday, and (ii) to investigate if these changes can be used as indicators of physical tiredness by relating them to known variables of physical fitness and workload. Fourteen crossbred ranch horses were assessed pre- and post-workday on two farms, recording the body language, physiologi...
Hellings IR, Krontveit R, Øverlie M, Kallmyr A, Holm T, Fintl C.Elevated cardiac troponin T (cTnT) concentrations may provide evidence of myocardial injury but physiological post-exercise release also occurs. Reference intervals are not fully established in horses making interpretation difficult. The aims of this study were to establish an upper reference limit for serum cTnT, compare pre-and post-race serum cTnT concentrations, and to evaluate factors that may influence these in a population of healthy, race-fit Standardbred racehorses. Serum samples were collected pre- (n = 108) and 1-2 h post-racing (n = 101) and analysed using a high sensitivity-cTnT a...
Tabor G, Nankervis K, Fernandes J, Williams J.Outcome measures (OMs) are a requirement of professional practice standards in human and canine physiotherapy practice for measurement of health status. Measures such as pain and functional capacity of specific regions are used to track treatment impact and can be used to develop optimal management strategies. To achieve comparable patient care in equine physiotherapy, OMs must be incorporated into practice; however, no reliable and valid OMs exist for equine rehabilitation. This study utilised the experience and opinion of a panel of experts working in the equine rehabilitation sphere to gain...
Ülke ÇG, Deniz SI, Nureddin Ç.Metacarpal tendon diseases are important problems that may cause a decrease in performance and even may finish sport life in equine athletes. In this study, it was aimed to evaluate the ratio of return to races and the time of staying away from races and also to detect the prognostic value of ultrasonographic findings in Thoroughbred and Arabian racehorses with metacarpal flexor tendon injury or peritendonitis. Of 120 cases, 84 (70.0%) returned to races. Among these, 82.1% had tendonitis (69/84) and 17.9% peritendonitis (15/84). Among the cases being unable to return to races, 91.7% had tendon...
Prochno HC, Barussi FM, Bastos FZ, Weber SH, Bechara GH, Rehan IF, Michelotto PV.Infrared thermography has been used to help in diagnosing lameness. It is hypothesized that, if used in a routine basis, it could help in understanding musculoskeletal modifications during race training. This study aimed to evaluate thermal variation in the musculoskeletal regions of young Thoroughbred (TB) horses during their initial months of race training. Thermographic examinations were performed once every 2 weeks on 16 (10 male, 6 female) two-year-old TB racehorses, from arrival to the racetrack in June 2016, until January 2017, for a total of 16 evaluations. Thermographic imaging was pe...
Lindner A, Esser M, López R, Boffi F.In endurance racing the heart rate (HR) of horses in the veterinary gates has to reach a maximum set to continue racing. There is no literature on the relationship between resting HR (HRresting) and HR after exercise (HRrecovery). This relationship was examined in seven horses and the results were related to their v (speed at which the blood lactate concentration is 4 mmol/L). Horses were submitted to an exercise test to determine v. Thereafter, horses were exercised on a treadmill in randomized order for 10 and 60 min at different speeds. HR was measured before exercise and several times unti...
Becero M, Saitua A, Argüelles D, Sánchez de Medina AL, Castejón-Riber C, Riber C, Muñoz A.Capacitive resistive electric transfer (CRET), a radiofrequency at 448 kHz, resulted in increased superficial and deep temperature and hemoglobin saturation, faster elimination of metabolic and inflammatory products and enhanced sport performance in humans. This research aims to investigate whether the application of CRET affects the locomotor pattern in horses and to assess whether an accumulative effect appears when two CRET sessions are applied two consecutive days. Methods: Nine horses were subjected to two CRET sessions applied in both right and left sides of neck, shoulder, back and cr...
Christensen JW, Bathellier S, Rhodin M, Palme R, Uldahl M.Recent studies have reported significant alterations in horse physiological and gait parameters when exposed to increased rider weight during moderate to high intensity exercise. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of increased rider weight (+15% and +25% of the regular rider's bodyweight) on horse behavioral, physiological and gait symmetry parameters during a standard dressage test. Twenty rider-horse equipages performed the same test three times in a randomized, crossover design. Salivary cortisol (SC), heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), behavior and gait symmetry (GS) were ...
Dunstan RH, Macdonald MM, Thorn B, Wood D, Roberts TK.Horses in heavy training in preparation for racing and competition have increased metabolic demands to support the more intensive levels of exercise and recovery. However, little is known at the metabolic level about amino acid turnover and the specific alterations of demand caused by high intensity exercise. During exercise, certain amino acids are required in greater quantities due to disproportionate losses via excretory systems and usage in biosynthetic pathways. This investigation has built a theoretical computer model in an attempt to bring together the published rates of protein intake ...
Takahashi Y, Mukai K, Ohmura H, Takahashi T.Muscle activities of the major hindlimb muscles have been reported to decrease with fatigue in horses. However, those in other muscles have been scarcely reported. We aimed to quantify fatigue-induced electromyographic changes in head and neck muscles and muscles around the shoulder joints in horses. Surface electromyographic recording of the splenius, brachiocephalicus, infraspinatus, and deltoid muscles was performed on a total of nine healthy Thoroughbred horses. Horses galloped on a treadmill inclined to 3% at a constant speed (12.7-14.6 m/second) to make them fatigued after approximately...
Ikeda Y, Ishihara A, Nakajima M, Yamada K.Thoroughbred racehorses are commonly affected with superficial digital flexor (SDF) tendinopathy. This study aimed to identify risk factors for SDF tendinopathy in racing horses. The authors selected racehorses (n=292) with SDF tendinopathy from the medical records of a racetrack. As a risk factor associated with track-related variables, the SDF tendinopathy odds ratio (OR) was significantly high for a sloppy track surface compared with a standard track surface. Regarding risk factors associated with race-related variables, the SDF tendinopathy OR was significantly high in the following cases:...
Birks EK, Ohmura H, Jones JH.Measurements of gas exchange while breathing gases of different O concentrations are useful in respiratory and exercise physiology. High bias flows required in flow-through indirect calorimetry systems for large animals like exercising horses necessitate the use of inconveniently large reservoirs of mixed gases for making such measurements and can limit the amount of equilibration time that is adequate for steady-state measurements. We obviated the need to use a pre-mixed reservoir of gas in a semi-open flow-through indirect calorimeter by dynamically mixing gases and verified the theoretical ...
Machová K, Daďová K, Chaloupková H, Svobodová I.Many studies have shown that having a dog has an impact on the increase in physical activity (PA) of people. However, what is often not taken into account in many such studies is owning of other pets. The aim of this study was to compare PA levels between animal owners and non-owners and to research potential differences between owners of different kinds of animals. Methods: 111 young females of mean age 21 ± 1.2 years enrolled in this cross-sectional study. Czech version of short International physical activity questionnaire (IPAQ) was used to assess PA level, supplemented with a quest...
van der Kolk JH, Thomas S, Mach N, Ramseyer A, Burger D, Gerber V, Nuoffer JM.Mitochondrial β-oxidation is essential in fat metabolism and can be monitored with blood acylcarnitine profiling, as partly degraded fatty acids accumulate as their carnitine esters. To guarantee continuous energy supply during long-distance exercise, endurance horses oxidise considerable amounts of fat in the mitochondrion. In endurance races over 80 km, glycogen depletion is evident in equine slow-twitch high oxidative muscle fibres and as a consequence, horses participating in endurance races over 80 km rely almost entirely on β-oxidation of fatty acids. This study investigated mitoch...
Maśko M, Zdrojkowski L, Domino M, Jasinski T, Gajewski Z.The natural head and neck position (HNP) of horses differs from the position in horse riding when bit is used. The special lunging aids (LAs) are applied in order to modify HNP. Different types of LAs have the potential to affect the work of horse muscles and the superficial thermographic patterns (STPs). The effects of thre LAs on STPs of neck, chest, back, and hindquarters were investigated. Methods: Sixteen leisure horses were lunged with freely moving head (FMH), rubber band (RB), chambon (CH), and triangle side reins (TRs). The thermographic images (n = 896) were analyzed before/after lun...
Moshage SG, McCoy AM, Polk JD, Kersh ME.Bone adaptation is in part driven by mechanical loading, and exercise during youth has been shown to have life-long benefits for bone health. However, the development of early exercise-based interventions that reduce the incidence of fractures in racing horses is limited by the lack of characterization of normal development in growing bone. Previous efforts to quantify bone development in the horse have relied on repeated radiographs or peripheral quantitative computed tomography scans, which are limited in their assessment of the entire bone. In this study, we acquired computed tomography sca...
Andriichuk A, Tkachenko H.The objective of this study was to assess the influence of exercise of average intensity in the haematological and biochemical values, as well as acidic resistance of erythrocytes in mares and stallions of Holsteiner breed. A total of seventeen horses of Holstein breed (seven mares and 10 stallions aged 6 years) were used in this study. The blood samples were assessed for haematocrit (HCT) value, haemoglobin concentration (HGB), the amount of red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC), platelets (PLT), leucogram, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC), mean corpuscular volume (...
Ringmark S, Lindholm A, Hedenström U, Lindinger M, Dahlborn K, Kvart C, Jansson A.Training of Standardbred race horses aims to improve cardiovascular and metabolic functions but studies on the effects of different training strategies from breaking till racing are lacking. Sixteen horses with the goal to race as 3-year-olds were studied from breaking (1-year-olds) to December as 3-year-olds. Horses were allocated to either a control (C) or reduced (R) training program from 2 years of age. The aim was to evaluate the effect of reducing the distance of high intensity exercise by 30% with respect to velocity at lactate concentration 4 mmol/l (VLa4), blood lactate and cardiovasc...
Rakestraw PC, Hackett RP, Ducharme NG, Nielan GJ, Erb HN.Endoscopic examinations of the larynx were recorded on 49 horses at rest and while exercising on a 5% inclined high-speed treadmill for 8 minutes at a maximum speed of 8.5 m/sec. Subjective laryngeal function scores at rest and while exercising were based on the degree and synchrony of arytenoid abduction. Arytenoid abduction was expressed as a left:right ratio of rima glottidis measurements. Horses with arytenoid cartilage asynchrony at rest (grade 2) could not be distinguished from normal horses (grade 1) when exercising because full abduction was maintained throughout the exercise period. F...
Ringmark S, Roepstorff L, Essén-Gustavsson B, Revold T, Lindholm A, Hedenström U, Rundgren M, Ogren G, Jansson A.The aim of this study was to, from a holistic perspective, describe the effects of a forage-only feeding system and a conventional training program on young Standardbred horses and compare data with similar observations from the literature. Sixteen Standardbred colts fed a forage-only diet for 4 months from breaking (August to December) and with the goal to vigorously trot 5 to 7 km at a speed of 5.6 m/s (3 min/km) were studied. The horses were fed grass haylage (56 to 61% dry matter (DM), 2.80 to 3.02 Mcal DE/kg DM and 130 to 152 g CP/kg DM) ad libitum, 1 kg of a lucerne product and minerals....
Frellstedt L, Gosset P, Kervoaze G, Hans A, Desmet C, Pirottin D, Bureau F, Lekeux P, Art T.Respiratory diseases, including inflammatory airway disease (IAD), viral and bacterial infections, are common problems in exercising horses. The airway epithelium constitutes a major physical barrier against airborne infections and plays an essential role in the lung innate immune response mainly through toll-like receptor (TLR) activation. The aim of this study was to develop a model for the culture of equine bronchial epithelial cells (EBEC) in vitro and to explore EBEC innate immune responses in trained horses. Bronchial epithelial biopsies were taken from 6 adult horses during lower airway...
McCutcheon LJ, Geor RJ, Hinchcliff KW.This study examined changes in skeletal muscle GLUT4 content and glucose transport in isolated muscle membranes (GT) from horses before and 2 min after standardised submaximal exercise tests (SET) prior to and after completion of 6 weeks of training. Seven horses, age 3-9 years, body mass mean +/- s.e. 530 +/- 19 kg, and sedentary for at least 4 months, completed 6 weeks of training on a treadmill. An initial SET (UT) was performed on a 4 degree incline at a speed equivalent to 55% of pretraining VO2max and was repeated post-training at the same absolute workload (ABS). A third SET (REL) was p...
Wickler SJ, Hoyt DF, Cogger EA, Hall KM.Horses have a tendency to utilize a relatively narrow set of speeds near the middle of a much broader range they are capable of using within a particular gait, i.e., a preferred speed. Possible explanations for this behavior include minimizing musculoskeletal stresses and maximizing metabolic economy. If metabolic economy (cost of transport, CT) and preferred speeds are linked, then shifts in CT should produce shifts in preferred speed. To test this hypothesis, preferred speed was measured in trotting horses (n = 7) unloaded on the level and loaded with 19% of their body weight on the level. T...
Manohar M, Hutchens E, Coney E.Exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH) is a common occurrence in race horses. Although blood in cases of EIPH has been suspected to originate from the bronchial circulation, which receives approximately 1% of the left ventricular output, physiological evidence has recently emerged to indicate that the pulmonary circulation, which receives the entire output of the right ventricle, is a more likely source. High transmural pulmonary capillary pressures have been shown to cause breaks in the capillary endothelium, basement membrane as well as in the alveolar epithelium. Blood constituents e...
Knych HK, Vidal MA, Casbeer HC, McKemie DS.The use of triamcinolone acetonide (TA) in performance horses necessitates establishing appropriate withdrawal times prior to performance. Objective: To describe the plasma pharmacokinetics of TA and time-related urine and synovial fluid concentrations following i.m. and intra-articular administration to exercised Thoroughbred horses. Methods: Block design. Methods: Twelve racing fit adult Thoroughbred horses received a single i.m. administration of TA (0.1 mg/kg bwt). After an appropriate washout period, the same horses then received a single intra-articular TA administration (9 mg) into the ...
Colborne GR, Birtles DM, Cacchione IC.Muscle fatigue can be quantified using Fourier analysis of the recorded EMG signal. Median frequency is the frequency at which the Fourier profile is bisected, and this measure typically shifts to smaller values during fatigue. This technique was combined with kinematic analysis to describe the time course of fatigue in horses galloping on an inclined treadmill. It was hypothesised that EMG median frequency would decrease in tandem with changes in kinematic variables through the exercise test. Three fit Thoroughbred horses had retroreflective markers placed on their hooves and withers. Surface...
Christensen JW, Bathellier S, Rhodin M, Palme R, Uldahl M.Recent studies have reported significant alterations in horse physiological and gait parameters when exposed to increased rider weight during moderate to high intensity exercise. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of increased rider weight (+15% and +25% of the regular rider's bodyweight) on horse behavioral, physiological and gait symmetry parameters during a standard dressage test. Twenty rider-horse equipages performed the same test three times in a randomized, crossover design. Salivary cortisol (SC), heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), behavior and gait symmetry (GS) were ...
Heim C, Pfau T, Gerber V, Schweizer C, Doherr M, Schüpbach-Regula G, Witte S.The diagnosis of equine back disorders is challenging. Objectively determining movement of the vertebral column may therefore be of value in a clinical setting. Objective: To establish whether surface-mounted inertial measurement units (IMUs) can be used to establish normal values for range of motion (ROM) of the vertebral column in a uniform population of horses trotting under different conditions. Methods: Vertebral ROM was established in Franches-Montagnes stallions and a general population of horses and the variability in measurements compared between the two groups. Repeatability and the ...
Ronéus M, Essén-Gustavsson B, Lindholm A, Persson SG.Muscle biopsies were taken from the middle gluteal muscle of 28 Standardbred trotters, 3-4 years of age. The 13 horses in Group T were trained consistently from 18 months of age, whereas the 15 horses in Group UT were not exposed to any systematic training before 3 years of age. Group T horses had a lower percentage of Type IIB fibres (31%) than did Group UT horses (39%). Citrate synthase (CS) activity, representing oxidative capacity, was higher in Group T (72 mmol kg-1 min-1) than in Group UT (47 mmol kg-1 min-1). Biopsies were taken from 4 horses in each group when they were foals and then ...
Massányi M, Halo M, Mlyneková E, Kováčiková E, Tokárová K, Greń A, Massányi P, Halo M.The performance of sport horses is conditioned not only by the quality of its gene pool, but also by a large number of external factors. The most dominant being nutrition, quality of breeding, level of zootechnical care and the quality of the sports rider and coach. Important factor is the process of individuals' adaptation to the training load occurring during the training itself. This study was focused on the analysis of salivary cortisol levels as well as hematological and biochemical blood parameters in relation to load to which the tested horses were subjected. In the study 14 horses of s...
Kamm JL, Frisbie DD, McIlwraith CW, Orr KE.To use microarray analysis to identify genes that are differentially expressed in horses with experimentally induced osteoarthritis. Methods: 24 horses. Methods: During arthroscopic surgery, a fragment was created in the distal aspect of the radiocarpal bone in 1 forelimb of each horse to induce osteoarthritis. At day 14 after osteoarthritis induction, horses began exercise on a treadmill. Blood and synovial fluid samples were collected before and after surgery. At day 70, horses were euthanized and tissues were harvested for RNA analysis. An equine-specific microarray was used to measure RNA ...
Howard RD, McIlwraith CW, Trotter GW, Powers BE, McFadden PR, Harwood FL, Amiel D.Bilateral osteochondral defects (10 mm2 x 3 mm deep) were created on the distal articular surface of the radial carpal bone of ten, 2- to 3-year-old horses. One defect of each horse was repaired, using a sternal cartilage autograft (treated), and the other was left untreated (control). The horses were exercised on a high-speed treadmill at incrementally increased speed and duration over the course of 12 months. Horses were evaluated arthroscopically at 6 to 7 weeks, and clinical examinations were conducted weekly at exercise. Twelve months after surgery, carpuses of each horse were radiographe...
Kirschvink N, de Moffarts B, Farnir F, Pincemail J, Lekeux P.There is increasing evidence that the equine athlete is exposed to exercise-induced changes of its oxidant/antioxidant balance and antioxidant supplementation is frequently recommended. However, it is unknown whether there is a specific need for antioxidants according to performance, breed, gender or age. Objective: To assess whether breed-, gender- and age-related differences of blood oxidant/antioxidant markers occur in competition horses. Methods: Healthy horses (n = 493) underwent oxidant/ antioxidant blood marker determination. Vitamin E, lipophilic antioxidant capacity (ACL), ascorbic ac...
Malinowski K, Shock EJ, Rochelle P, Kearns CF, Guirnalda PD, McKeever KH.Ageing appears to affect immune and neuroendocirne function in horses and response to acute exercise. No studies have examined the combined effects of training and ageing on immune and neuroendocirne function in horses. Objective: To ascertain whether training and age would affect the plasma beta-endorphin (BE) and cortisol (C) as well as immune function responses to acute exercise in Standardbred mares. Methods: Graded exercise tests (GXT) and simulated race tests (SRT) were performed before and after 12 weeks training at 60 % HRmax. BE and C were measured at rest and at 5, 10, 20, 40, 60 and...
De Maré L, Boshuizen B, Vidal Moreno de Vega C, de Meeûs C, Plancke L, Gansemans Y, Van Nieuwerburgh F, Deforce D, de Oliveira JE, Hosotani G....There is a great need for objective external training load prescription and performance capacity evaluation in equestrian disciplines. Therefore, reliable standardised exercise tests (SETs) are needed. Classic SETs require maximum intensities with associated risks to deduce training loads from pre-described cut-off values. The lactate minimum speed (LMS) test could be a valuable alternative. Our aim was to compare new performance parameters of a modified LMS-test with those of an incremental SET, to assess the effect of training on LMS-test parameters and curve-shape, and to identify the optim...
Salz RO, Ahern BJ, Boston R, Begg LM.To determine the variation of tracheal mucus scores, tracheal blood scores and transendoscopic tracheal wash (TW) cytology in a population of Thoroughbred (TB) racehorses and assess their association with racing performance. Methods: A total of 220 endoscopic examinations were performed and TWs obtained from 155 TB racehorses. Samples were collected 60-120 min following gallop work. Tracheal mucus score, tracheal blood score and TW cytology were analysed and their association with racing performance assessed. Results: Of the total examinations and samples, 194 from 135 horses fitted the criter...
Butcher MT, Hermanson JW, Ducharme NG, Mitchell LM, Soderholm LV, Bertram JE.Racing and training related lesions of the forelimb superficial digital flexor tendon are a common career ending injury to racehorses but aetiology and/or predisposing causes of the injury are not completely understood. Objective: Although the injury takes place within the tendon, the lesion must be considered within the context of the function of the complete suspensory system of the distal limb, including the associated muscles. Methods: Both muscle and tendon function were investigated in vivo using implanted strain gauges in 3 Thoroughbred horses walking, trotting and cantering on a motori...
Zeyner A, Romanowski K, Vernunft A, Harris P, Müller AM, Wolf C, Kienzle E.The provision of NaCl, according to current recommendations, to horses in moderate work has been shown to induce immediate postprandial acidosis. The present study aimed to clarify whether this NaCl induced acidosis i) persists beyond the immediate postprandial period, and ii) is still present after a 2 week adaptation period. Six adult warmblood mares in moderate work received daily 1.00 kg hay per 100 kg body weight (bwt) only together with 0.64 kg unprocessed cereal grains/100 kg bwt.d as fed basis. Using a 3x3 Latin Square, either 0 (NaCl-0), 50 (NaCl-50) or 100 (NaCl-100) g NaCl/d were fe...
Page AE, Stewart JC, Fielding CL, Horohov DW.Previous work to evaluate various risk factors for failure to complete competitive endurance rides has examined clinicopathologic parameters, measurements of inflammation, and speed. Here, inflammatory markers were measured before, during, and after a long-distance, competitive endurance ride to examine the intraride dynamics of inflammatory marker expression and attempt to correlate those findings with whether a horse completed or failed to complete the ride. A total of 77 horses entered into the 2018 Tevis Cup Ride in California were enrolled in the study. Peripheral blood samples for mRNA i...
Ohmura H, Mukai K, Takahashi Y, Takahashi T, Jones JH.Hypoxic training is effective for improving athletic performance in humans. It increases maximal oxygen consumption (V̇Omax) more than normoxic training in untrained horses. However, the effects of hypoxic training on well-trained horses are unclear. We measured the effects of hypoxic training on V̇Omax of 5 well-trained horses in which V̇Omax had not increased over 3 consecutive weeks of supramaximal treadmill training in normoxia which was performed twice a week. The horses trained with hypoxia (15% inspired O) twice a week. Cardiorespiratory valuables were analyzed with analysis of varia...
Ermers C, McGilchrist N, Fenner K, Wilson B, McGreevy P.Failure to meet the minimum forage requirement of 1.5% of the horse's bodyweight and the opportunity for foraging for a minimum of 8 h a day (not going without this opportunity longer than four to five consecutive hours) can have both physiological and behavioural consequences. To provide an energy source for horses, rations often include starch rather than fibre. This can result in health issues related to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in the horse. In the stomach, the main concern is equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) and, more specifically, equine squamous gastric disease (ESGD). Ulcer...
Mukai K, Hiraga A, Takahashi T, Matsui A, Ohmura H, Aida H, Jones JH.OBJECTIVE To determine whether racehorses undergoing regular exercise at 2 intensities or stall rest during a period of reduced training (detraining) would differentially maintain their cardiopulmonary and oxygen-transport capacities. ANIMALS 27 Thoroughbreds. PROCEDURES Horses trained on a treadmill for 18 weeks underwent a period of detraining for 12 weeks according to 1 of 3 protocols: cantering at 70% of maximal rate of oxygen consumption ([Formula: see text]o) for 3 min/d for 5 d/wk (canter group); walking for 1 h/d for 5 d/wk (walk group); or stall rest (stall group). Standardized treadm...
Mami S, Khaje G, Shahriari A, Gooraninejad S.The aim of this study was to assay changes in blood biochemical parameters that resulted from exercise-induced muscle fatigue in horses participating in the two races (1,250 and 1,400 meters). Six male Arabian horses (3 to 6 years old) were used in this study. Blood samples were collected at time intervals including 1 hour before the race, immediately after the race, 1 and 24 hours after the end of race. Catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activities, the blood level of malondialdehyde, protein carbonyl, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were measured, as w...
Firth EC, Rogers CW, Anderson BH.To determine the weight, volume, density and cross-sectional area (CSA) of the digital flexor tendons, common digital extensor tendon (CDET) and suspensory ligament (SL) of the forelimb of young Thoroughbred horses in early training, and to assess the response to a training programme of known parameters of superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) tissue at mid-metacarpal level. Methods: The tendons of seven 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses in training were inspected, transected into segments of known length, and compared with those from seven untrained horses matched for age, sex and breed. The ...
Kirschvink N, Art T, de Moffarts B, Smith N, Marlin D, Roberts C, Lekeux P.Exercise-induced oxidative stress is investigated as a potential performance-limiting factor in human sports medicine. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess whether physiological variables that change with exercise intensity were correlated with blood oxidant markers in healthy and heaves-affected horses. Seven healthy horses, 8 heaves-affected in remission and 7 heaves-affected in crisis performed a standardised exercise test (SET) of stepwise increasing intensity. Variables monitored during exercise were heart rate (HR), venous plasma lactate (LA), packed cell volume (PCV) and arteria...
Johnstone IB, Viel L, Crane S, Whiting T.The purpose of this study was to determine whether a defect in hemostasis might be a factor in the etiology of exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH). Hemostatic parameters were evaluated in 22 EIPH-positive and ten EIPH-negative racing horses while in a rested state. Nineteen EIPH-positive and ten EIPH-negative horses were further evaluated just before and immediately after a 15 min exercise period on a 260 m oval track. When EIPH-positive and EIPH-negative horses were compared at rest, there was no significant difference in any of the coagulation and fibrinolytic parameters studied. Th...
