Horse training involves the systematic process of teaching horses specific behaviors and skills to enhance their performance and manageability. This process encompasses a variety of techniques and methods tailored to the individual horse's temperament, age, and intended use, such as riding, racing, or working. Training regimens aim to develop desired traits such as obedience, agility, and endurance while ensuring the horse's physical and mental well-being. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore various aspects of horse training, including methodologies, behavioral outcomes, and the impact on equine welfare and performance.
Stancampiano L, Mughini Gras L, Poglayen G.The spatial distribution of large intestinal helminth parasites of 50 horses was studied. Both adult and mucosal larval stages were examined and counted within the ventral colon, dorsal colon and caecum. Thirty-three species of adult parasites were identified and their distribution in the three large intestinal regions reported, together with the localization of cyathostome encysted larvae and of empty mucosal cysts. In order to highlight interspecific interactions, both Spearman pairwise correlation (among all parasites) and multivariable negative binomial regression (among the most abundant ...
Cook WR, Mills DS.The study tested the null hypothesis that if a horse is ridden in a snaffle bridle and then a crossunder bitless bridle, there will be no change in its behaviour. It was predicted that there would be change and that behaviour would improve when bitless. Four horses, none of which had ever been ridden in a crossunder bitless bridle, were ridden through two 4 min, exercise tests, first bitted then bitless. An independent judge marked the 27 phases of each test on a 10 point scale and comments and scores were recorded on a video soundtrack. The results refuted the null hypothesis and upheld the p...
Doughty A, Cross N, Robins A, Phillips CJ.There are ethical concerns regarding the loss of horses from various equine industries and their corresponding slaughter. However, to date, no empirical evidence regarding the extent of this loss, nor of the condition of horses involved, exists within Australia. Objective: To determine the approximate ages, brand type and condition of feet of horses relinquished to an export abattoir in Australia. Methods: Data were collected from 340 horses processed at an Australian abattoir from November 2007-January 2008. Foot abnormalities, injuries and hoof indicators of overgrown and untrimmed hooves we...
Ramzan PH, Palmer L.Musculoskeletal injury is the most common cause of lost training days in the young Thoroughbred horse in flat race training. To date, there has been little investigation of the regional patterns of injury frequently observed by clinicians in racehorse practice. The present study was conducted to determine incidence of musculoskeletal injuries in Thoroughbreds in training in Newmarket, United Kingdom. Veterinary records for all horses resident in three large (>100 horse) training yards were assessed for occurrence of significant musculoskeletal injury. A total of 248 injuries were recorded in 2...
Hill EW, Gu J, Eivers SS, Fonseca RG, McGivney BA, Govindarajan P, Orr N, Katz LM, MacHugh DE.Variants of the MSTN gene encoding myostatin are associated with muscle hypertrophy phenotypes in a range of mammalian species, most notably cattle, dogs, mice, and humans. Using a sample of registered Thoroughbred horses (n = 148), we have identified a novel MSTN sequence polymorphism that is strongly associated (g.66493737C>T, P = 4.85x10(-8)) with best race distance among elite racehorses (n = 79). This observation was independently validated (P = 1.91x10(-6)) in a resampled group of Thoroughbreds (n = 62) and in a cohort of Thoroughbreds (n = 37, P = 0.0047) produced by the same trainer...
Cleary OB, Trumble TN, Merritt KA, Brown MP.To investigate the effects of exercise and osteochondral injury on concentrations of carboxy-terminal telopeptide fragments of type II collagen (CTX-II) in synovial fluid (SF) and serum of Thoroughbred racehorses and to compare findings with radiographic and arthroscopic scores of joint injury severity. Methods: 78 Thoroughbreds with (n = 38) and without (40) osteochondral injury. Methods: Serum and metacarpophalangeal or carpal joint SF samples were collected from noninjured horses before and at the end of 5 to 6 months of race training (pre- and postexercise samples, respectively) and from h...
McGivney BA, Eivers SS, MacHugh DE, MacLeod JN, O'Gorman GM, Park SD, Katz LM, Hill EW.Selection for exercise-adapted phenotypes in the Thoroughbred racehorse has provided a valuable model system to understand molecular responses to exercise in skeletal muscle. Exercise stimulates immediate early molecular responses as well as delayed responses during recovery, resulting in a return to homeostasis and enabling long term adaptation. Global mRNA expression during the immediate-response period has not previously been reported in skeletal muscle following exercise in any species. Also, global gene expression changes in equine skeletal muscle following exercise have not been reported...
Tabar-Rodriguez JJ, Cruz AM, Monteith G, Gordon K, Hurtig MB.OBJECTIVE-To use quantitative ultrasonography to evaluate the association between the speed of sound (SOS) at 9 sites in the third metacarpal bone (MCIII) of racing Thoroughbreds with workload accumulation and the effect that MCIII failure has on this association. ANIMALS-Sixty-two 2- and 3-year-old Thoroughbreds in racing condition. PROCEDURES-Cumulative work index (CWI) was used to calculate total workload (CWI(total)) and also 3 independent CWIs for the various gaits (ie, trot [CWI(trot)], gallop [CWI(gallop)], and race [CWI(race)]) used during training and racing. Speed of sound was monito...
Lindner AE.The objective of the study was to examine the validity of v(4) [velocity run under the defined conditions inducing 4 mmol/L of blood lactate concentration ([LA])] and v(200) (velocity run under the defined conditions inducing a heart rate of 200 beats/min) to differentiate performance level among Standardbred racehorses. For this purpose, 19 Standardbred trotting racehorses with differing racing time records in 2 training yards were submitted to a standardized exercise test to determine their v(4) and v(200) (6 horses of one yard only). The test consisted of 4 or more consecutive intervals dep...
de Cocq P, Duncker AM, Clayton HM, Bobbert MF, Muller M, van Leeuwen JL.In equestrian sports, it is generally assumed that rising and sitting trot load the horse's back differently. The objective of this study was to quantify the load on the horse's back in these riding techniques. Kinematic data of 13 riders were collected in rising and sitting trot. The time-history of the position of the rider's centre of mass (CoM) was calculated, and differentiated twice to obtain the acceleration of the CoM. The reaction force between the rider and the horse's back was calculated from the acceleration. Forces were divided by the body weight of the rider to obtain dimensionle...
Bouwman FG, van Ginneken MM, Noben JP, Royackers E, de Graaf-Roelfsema E, Wijnberg ID, van der Kolk JH, Mariman EC, van Breda E.The major aim of the present study was to investigate the proteome of standardbred horses at different stages of training and intensified training. We searched for biomarkers using small skeletal muscle biopsies of live animals. 2D gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry were successfully applied to investigate training-induced differential expression of equine muscle biopsy proteins. Despite the poor resolution of the equine genome and proteome, we were able to identify the proteins of 20 differential spots representing 16 different proteins. Evaluation of those proteins complies with adapt...
Perez-Moreno CI, Couëtil LL, Pratt SM, Ochoa-Acuña HG, Raskin RE, Russell MA.The objective was to quantify the effect of furosemide and carbazochrome on exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH) in Standardbred horses using red blood cell count and hemoglobin concentration in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. Six healthy Standardbred horses with prior evidence of EIPH performed a standardized treadmill test 4 h after administration of placebo, furosemide, or furosemide-carbazochrome combination. Red blood cell (RBC) counts and hemoglobin concentrations were determined on the BAL fluid. The RBC count in BAL ranges were (2903-26,025 cells/microL), (45-24,060 cells/m...
Eivers SS, McGivney BA, Fonseca RG, MacHugh DE, Menson K, Park SD, Rivero JL, Taylor CT, Katz LM, Hill EW.Intense selection for elite racing performance in the Thoroughbred horse (Equus caballus) has resulted in a number of adaptive physiological phenotypes relevant to exercise; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for these characteristics are not well understood. Adaptive changes in mRNA expression in equine skeletal muscle were investigated by real-time qRT-PCR for a panel of candidate exercise-response genes following a standardized incremental-step treadmill exercise test in eight untrained Thoroughbred horses. Biopsy samples were obtained from the gluteus medius before, i...
Tull TM, Woodie JB, Ruggles AJ, Reimer JR, Embertson RM, Hopper SA, Bramlage LR.Few studies have evaluated the athletic prognosis of foals affected by gastrocnemius disruption. Objective: To examine the diagnosis and management of gastrocnemius disruption in Thoroughbred (TB) foals, determine short-term survival rate and assess future racing performance. The hypothesis was that Thoroughbred foals with gastrocnemius disruption are able to perform as racehorses comparably to their age matched maternal siblings. Methods: The medical records of foals diagnosed with gastrocnemius muscle disruption were reviewed. Information on training and racing was acquired from published wo...
Firth EC, Doube M, Boyde A.To show that changes are present at the site of origin of metacarpal condylar fracture in young Thoroughbred horses before they enter race training. Methods: Bone slices, 2 mm thick, in three mediolateral planes through the centre of rotation of the metacarpo-phalangeal joint (MCPJ) of both distal third metacarpal bones (Mc3) of 12 Thoroughbred horses aged 17 months, were imaged using point-projection digital X-ray imaging (muXR). Results: In some horses, linear or ovoid radiolucency was found in articular calcified cartilage (ACC) and subchondral bone of the palmaro-distal aspect of the sagit...
Setterbo JJ, Garcia TC, Campbell IP, Reese JL, Morgan JM, Kim SY, Hubbard M, Stover SM.To compare hoof acceleration and ground reaction force (GRF) data among dirt, synthetic, and turf surfaces in Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: 3 healthy Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Forelimb hoof accelerations and GRFs were measured with an accelerometer and a dynamometric horseshoe during trot and canter on dirt, synthetic, and turf track surfaces at a racecourse. Maxima, minima, temporal components, and a measure of vibration were extracted from the data. Acceleration and GRF variables were compared statistically among surfaces. Results: The synthetic surface often had the lowest peak ...
Brown MP, Trumble TN, Merritt KA.To investigate effects of osteochondral injury on high-mobility group box chromosomal protein 1 (HMGB-1) concentrations in synovial fluid (SF) from Thoroughbreds and to compare these results with radiographic and arthroscopic scores of severity of joint injury. Methods: 40 clinically normal rested Thoroughbreds (group 1) and 45 Thoroughbreds with osteochondral injury as a result of racing. Methods: SF was obtained from the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints, metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints, middle carpal joints, and radiocarpal joints. For group 2, radiographic and arthroscopic scores were dete...
Kleiter M, Velde K, Hainisch E, Auer U, Reifinger M.A 13-month-old Standardbred Colt had a recurrent hemangioma at the level of the coronary band. Multiple excisions had led to a nonhealing skin and hoof defect. Using 14 MV electrons, a total dose of 36 Gy was administered, given as six fractions of 6 Gy twice a week. Wound healing by second intention was achieved over the next 4 months and the colt began race training 6 months after the end of therapy. Twenty months later the colt is sound and there is no evidence of tumor recurrence.
Vonaparti A, Lyris E, Panderi I, Koupparis M, Georgakopoulos C.In equine sport, salicylic acid is prohibited with a threshold level of 750 microg mL(-1) in urine; hence, doping control laboratories have to establish quantitative and qualitative methods for its determination. A simple and rapid liquid chromatographic/mass spectrometric method was developed and validated for the quantification and identification of salicylic acid. Urine samples after 900-fold dilution and addition of the internal standard (4-methylsalicylic acid) were directly injected to the liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry system. Electrospray ionization i...
Ichibangase T, Imai K.To extend the applicability of the fluorogenic derivatization-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (FD-LC-MS/MS) method, which consists of fluorogenic derivatization (FD), separation by liquid chromatography (LC), and identification by LC-tandem mass spectrometric (MS/MS) proteomic analysis, we applied it to Thoroughbred horse muscle. With the optimization of the protein extraction and separation procedure, reproducible chromatograms were obtained and the changes in protein expressions during exercise were able to be analyzed. To quantify the changed protein expressi...
Freire R, Buckley P, Cooper JJ.It is unknown if different locomotor activities are equally effective at meeting the stabled horse's need for exercise and if they attenuate unwanted behaviour. Objective: Alternative forms of exercise influence the intensity of locomotor activities during a period of turn-out (the so-called rebound effect) and the occurrence of unwanted or undesirable activities during standard handling situations. Methods: Twenty-four horses kept in stables were randomly assigned to one of 4 exercise regimes (walker, treadmill, turn-out and riding) for 4 consecutive days. Because these forms of exercise prov...
Avella CS, Ely ER, Verheyen KL, Price JS, Wood JL, Smith RK.It is important to ascertain the prevalence of superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injuries and to improve methods of predicting injury in National Hunt (NH) racehorses. Objective: To establish: 1) the prevalence of SDFT tendinopathy in NH horses; 2) whether routine ultrasonography can be used to predict SDFT injuries; 3) whether previous tendinopathy predisposes to reinjury; 4) a normal range for the SDFT cross-sectional area (CSA); and 5) the effects of gender, age, background (ex-flat or ex-store), limb, training and rest periods on SDFT CSA. Methods: Routine ultrasound assessment of t...
Ferrari M, Pfau T, Wilson AM, Weller R.The influence of training on stride parameters is controversial and to date there is no information on how training influences stride parameters during high-speed locomotion in the field. Objective: To determine the influence of training on stride variables during high-speed locomotion in Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Speed, stride frequency, stance and protraction times were quantified in 8 Thoroughbreds with foot mounted accelerometers and GPS sensors during their first week of canter after the summer break and 6 months into training. Results: At a speed of 11 m/s, stride frequency was (...
Lichtwark GA, Watson JC, Mavrommatis S, Wilson AM.The equine biceps brachii (biceps) initiates rapid limb protraction through a catapult mechanism. Elastic strain energy is slowly stored in an internal tendon and is then rapidly released to protract the forelimb. The muscle fibres are short, have little scope for length change and can therefore only shorten slowly compared with the speed at which the whole muscle must shorten, which makes them poor candidates for driving rapid limb protraction. We suggest that the muscle fibres in the biceps act to modulate the elastic energy output of the muscle-tendon unit (MTU) to meet the demands of locom...
Pfau T, Spence A, Starke S, Ferrari M, Wilson A.When animals carry loads, there is a proportionate increase in metabolic cost, and in humans this increase in cost is reduced when the load is elastically coupled to the load bearer. Major horse race times and records improved by 5 to 7% around 1900 when jockeys adopted a crouched posture. We show that jockeys move to isolate themselves from the movement of their mount. This would be difficult or impossible with a seated or upright, straight-legged posture. This isolation means that the horse supports the jockey's body weight but does not have to move the jockey through each cyclical stride pa...
Farmer K, Krueger K, Byrne RW.Most horses have a side on which they are easier to handle and a direction they favour when working on a circle, and recent studies have suggested a correlation between emotion and visual laterality when horses observe inanimate objects. As such lateralisation could provide important clues regarding the horse's cognitive processes, we investigated whether horses also show laterality in association with people. We gave horses the choice of entering a chute to left or right, with and without the passive, non-interactive presence of a person unknown to them. The left eye was preferred for scannin...
Fureix C, Pagès M, Bon R, Lassalle JM, Kuntz P, Gonzalez G.Handling is a crucial component of the human-horse relationship. Here, we report data from an experiment conducted to assess and compare the effect of two training methods. Two groups of six Welsh mares were trained during four sessions of 50 min, one handled with traditional exercises (halter leading, grooming/brushing, lifting feet, lunging and pseudo-saddling (using only girth and saddle pad) and the second group with natural horsemanship exercises (desensitization, yielding to body pressure, lunging and free-lunging). Emotional reactivity (ER) and the human-horse relationship (HHR) were as...
Fraschetto C, Dancot M, Vandersmissen M, Denoix JM, Coudry V.To describe type and distribution of tarsal collateral ligament (CL) injuries and to assess the long-term outcome in horses treated conservatively. Methods: 78 horses (median age, 7 years [IQR, 4 to 9.75 years]) of different breeds and disciplines. Methods: Retrospective analysis (2000 through 2020) of horses with tarsal CL lesions diagnosed on ultrasound. The resting time, ability to return to work, and performance level after the injury were compared between horses having a single ligament (group S) or multiple ligaments (group M) affected and according to the case severity. Results: Most of...
Schrurs C, Dubois G, Van Erck-Westergren E, Gardner DS.The racing industry is supported by a predominance of female stablehands and work riders, but few become professional jockeys. Female jockeys have recently had notable race success. No study has assessed whether the sex of the rider may subtly influence racehorse physiology to affect performance. Here, using a validated exercise tracking system (the 'Equimetre'™) that records many physiological parameters simultaneously, this study characterised racehorse cardiovascular (heart rate, heart rate recovery) and biomechanical (stride length and frequency) parameters at various exercise intensitie...
Davie AJ, Wen L, Cust ARE, Beavers R, Fyfe T, Zhou S.This study investigated the effects of six weeks of normobaric hypoxic training on transcriptional expression of the genes associated with mitochondrial and glycolytic activities in Thoroughbred horses. Eight horses were divided into two groups of four. They completed an identical incremental, moderate intensity training program, except that one group trained in a hypoxic chamber with 15% oxygen for 30 min on alternate days except Sundays (HT), while the other group trained in normal air (NC). Prior to and post training, heart rate and blood lactate were measured during an incremental treadm...
Lage J, Fonseca MG, de Barros GGM, Feringer-Júnior WH, Pereira GT, Ferraz GC.This study aimed to characterize the maximum heart rate (HR) and the intensity of official marcha contests (OMC) and to compare the cost of transport (COT) and metabolic power (Pmet) of Mangalarga Marchador (MM) horses of marcha batida (MB) and marcha picada (MP) gaits. Twenty-two MM horses participated in this study. The experiment was conducted in 3 phases: 1) maximum effort test (MET), 2) OMC, and 3) standardized marcha test (SMT). To characterize the HR, 19 horses (14 MB and 5 MP) underwent a MET. Of those, 13 (9 MB and 4 MP) were monitored during the OMC, which consisted of 4 stages: marc...
Byström A, Roepstorff L, Johnston C.No data exist on the GRF-kinematics relation due to changes caused by equestrian interventions. Objective: Through the judicious use of draw reins the rider can influence the kinematics of the horse to meet stated goals of dressage training. Relating the results to previously published kinetic data of the same experiment implies a possible relationship between kinetics and kinematics. Methods: The kinematics of 8 sound Swedish Warmblood horses were measured whilst the horses were being ridden with and without draw reins. Three conditions were evaluated: 1) draw reins only (DR), 2) combination ...
Rumpler B, Riha A, Licka T, Kotschwar A, Peham C.Weight boots are commonly used for Icelandic horses to increase the height of the flight arc of the forelimbs in toelt. Objective: To show the influence of weights and toelting speed on the height of the swing phase. Methods: Eight Icelandic horses (mean ± s.d. 12 ± 3 years old, 369 ± 46 kg) were used. Reflecting makers were placed on the dorsal side of each hoof. The motion was collected with a kinematic system (10 cameras, 120 Hz sample rate, 1.3 Mpixels resolution). The horses were ridden in toelt by 2 experienced riders on a treadmill at 2 different speeds (2.96 m/s ± 0.30 and 4.10 m/s...
Staniszewska M, Kowalik S, Sadok I, Kędzierski W.Catabolism of tryptophan (Trp) is modulated by physical activity and provides a pool of active compounds: Trp is considered a calmative agent, kynurenine (Kyn) and 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HKyn) show neurotoxic effects, kynurenic acid (Kyna) and xanthurenic acid (XA) have neuroprotective properties like nicotinamide (NAm), while serotonin is the neurotransmitter. The study was conducted to investigate the dependence of exercise intensity, measured by plasma lactic acid (LA) concentration, on the level of Trp, its catabolites (serotonin, Kyn, 3-HKyn, Kyna and XA), and NAm in Thoroughbred horses. ...
Johnston GCA, Ahern BJ, Woldeyohannes SM, Young AC.Equine advanced imaging research involving racehorse fetlock pathology commonly uses cadaver limbs and a freeze-thaw process. The presence of short tau inversion recovery (STIR) signal intensity in the distal third metacarpal/metatarsal bone is of particular interest and may be clinically relevant in the diagnosis of horses at risk of fracture. However, little is known about the effect of the freeze-thaw process on the MRI appearance of STIR hyperintensity in these bones. This study compares the low-field MRI appearance of the distal third metacarpal/metatarsal bone from cadaver limbs of Thoro...
Singer ER, Saxby F, French NP.Serious injuries to horses and riders in horse trials (HT) and three-day events (3DE) are usually associated with falls of horses, which invariably involve falls of the riders. Many potential causes for these falls have been discussed. Objective: The aim of this case-control study was to investigate the risk factors for horse falls on the cross-country phase of horse trials and three-day events. Methods: Using retrospective data, significant risk factors identified with unvariable analysis (P value <0.2) were entered into a multivariable logistic regression model. Significant risk factors (...
McCutcheon LJ, Geor RJ, Shen H.The objective of this study was to determine the effects of 10 consecutive days of moderate intensity training on 1) the concentration of middle gluteal muscle Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase as determined by vanadate-facilitated 3H[ouabain binding; and 2) plasma potassium regulation before, during and after exercise at 100% of the pre-training maximum rate of oxygen consumption (VO2max). Six mature, unfit Thoroughbred horses completed both incremental (for determination of VO2max) and high-intensity exercise protocols before (HI1) and after (HI2) training. There additional horses undertook no training or e...
Orme CE, Harris RC.The aim of the study was to develop a model for the pre-exercise elevation of plasma free fatty acids in the horse, with a view to its future use in investigations of fat metabolism during exercise. A comparison of the lipase releasing and anticoagulative effects of heparin and a related substance pentosan polysulphate was investigated. Furthermore, the ability of heparin and pentosan polysulphate to affect an increase in plasma free fatty acid concentration, when co-administered with-a triglyceride emulsion, was quantified. Doses of 0.39 and 1.3 mg kg-1 body wt of heparin and pentosan polysul...
Nylund LE, Sinclair PJ, McLean AN, Cobley S.Cross-country eventing is one of the highest-risk sporting activities for serious injury outcomes. This study investigated relationships between fall characteristics and high-risk falls at jumps in cross-country eventing. A video analysis protocol was systematically developed to analyze 87 video recordings of high-risk rider falls; defined as when the rider's head impacted the ground and/or where there was potential horse impact with the rider. Falls were classified according to competition type, jump type, horse-related, and rider-related factors. At least one high-risk fall characteristic wa...
Dyke TM, Sams RA, Hinchcliff KW.To determine the effects of acute exercise on hepatic blood flow by studying hepatic clearance of bromsulphalein for several submaximal exercise intensities. Methods: 8 adult Standardbred mares. Methods: Horses were subjected to 4 submaximal exercise intensities (resting and 40, 60, and 80% maximal oxygen consumption). After horses had been running at the required treadmill speed for 1 minute, bromsulphalein (BSP; 5 mg/kg of body weight, IV) was administered during a 45- to 60-second period, and horses continued at the desired speed for an additional 15 minutes. Blood samples were collected at...
Dyson S, Greve L.Several studies have shown that there is a high prevalence of ill-fitting saddles. Many riders do not have saddle fit professionally assessed on at least an annual basis. Back dimensions can change considerably over the period of a year and therefore saddle fit should be assessed several times yearly, especially if work intensity has been altered. Saddle fit should be evaluated before and after exercise because back dimensions can change during work. Ideally, horses should be ridden in individual purpose-fitted saddles, rather than the same saddle being used on several horses. There remains li...
Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM, Blok MB, Begeman L, Kamphuis MC, Lameris MC, Spierenburg AJ, Lashley MJ.'Rollkur' or 'overbending' is the low and deep riding of a dressage horse during training or warming up. Lately, this technique has been criticized, and not necessarily objectively, on welfare grounds. To be able to evaluate these criticisms, more needs to be known about the workload and stress of horses being ridden 'rollkur'. The aim of the present study was to compare the workload of eight riding-school horses when being ridden deep and round with a draw rein ('rollkur') and when being ridden in a natural frame with only light rein contact ('free'). Workload (as measured by heart rate and b...
Clayton HM, O'Connor KA, Kaiser LJ.The objective of this study was to compare forces and pressure profiles beneath a conventional dressage saddle with a beechwood spring tree and a treeless dressage saddle without a rigid internal support and incorporating large panels and a gullet. The null hypothesis was that there is no difference in the force and pressure variables for the two saddles. Six horses were ridden by the same rider using the conventional dressage saddle and the treeless dressage saddle in random order and pressure data were recorded using an electronic pressure mat as the horses trotted in a straight line. The da...
Perkins NR, Reid SW, Morris RS.To describe characteristics of Thoroughbred training stables in Matamata and in all other locations in New Zealand combined, over two 19-month time periods in 1996-1997 and 1998-1999, representing equal length periods immediately prior to and after the construction of a new training surface at the Matamata Racing Club. Methods: Retrospective records covering all horses training and racing in New Zealand during two 19-month time periods (1996-1997 and 1998-1999), covering 161 locations, were obtained from New Zealand Thoroughbred Racing (NZTR). Outcome variables included whether a horse was rac...
Cooper JJ.Training can best be explained as a process that occurs through stimulus-response-reinforcement chains, whereby animals are conditioned to associate cues in their environment, with specific behavioural responses and their rewarding consequences. Research into learning in horses has concentrated on their powers of discrimination and on primary positive reinforcement schedules, where the correct response is paired with a desirable consequence such as food. In contrast, a number of other learning processes that are used in training have been widely studied in other species, but have received litt...
Allen KJ, Fitzharris LE, McConnell AK.Inspiratory muscle training applies a training stimulus directly to the inspiratory muscles and is distinct from whole-body training. The potential benefits of inspiratory muscle training have yet to be explored in horses. Objective: The objectives were as follows: (a) to develop an equine-specific method of testing and training inspiratory muscles; (b) to assess tolerance and feasibility in a pilot study in a commercial Thoroughbred training establishment. Methods: Field study. Methods: A mask was used to interface commercial human inspiratory muscle training equipment. Ten horses undertook i...
Legg KA, Cochrane DJ, Gee EK, Macdermid PW, Rogers CW.To enhance performance in race riding, knowledge of current training workload is required. The objectives of this study were to quantify the physiological demands and profile the muscle activity of jockeys riding track-work. Methods: Ten apprentice jockeys and 48 horses were instrumented with heart-rate monitors, accelerometers, and a surface electromyography BodySuit (recording 8 muscle groups: quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteal, lower back, obliques, abdominal, trapezial, and pectoral) that recorded continuously while riding their normal morning track-work. Data were extracted and time matched ...
Mowry KC, Thomson-Parker TL, Morales C, Fikes KK, Stutts KJ, Leatherwood JL, Anderson MJ, Smith RX, Suagee-Bedore JK.Rice bran oil and flaxseed oil contain omega-3 fatty acids with the potential to reduce post-exercise inflammation and muscle damage. This study measures plasma interleukin-1β and creatine kinase and fatty acid profiles in lightly worked, young horses (Equus caballus) undergoing an exercise test after 60 days (d) of oil consumption, where the oil replaced 25% of concentrate calories. Treatments consisted of CON (no oil), FLAX (flaxseed oil blend), and RICE (crude rice bran oil). Blood was collected pre-exercise, and again at 1 min, 30 min, 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h post-IET. Data were analyzed by ...
Janett F, Burkhardt C, Burger D, Imboden I, Hässig M, Thun R.The objective of this study was to investigate changes of quality and freezability of stallion semen in response to repeated acute treadmill exercise. Ejaculates from 11 stallions were collected, evaluated and frozen weekly during four periods of 4 weeks each defined as before (period 1), during (period 2) and after (periods 3 and 4) intense exercise. In fresh semen the gel-free volume, sperm concentration, motility, normal sperm and sperm with major defects (acrosome defects, nuclear vacuoles, abnormal heads, midpiece defects and proximal droplets) were evaluated. In frozen-thawed semen, moti...
Rossi TM, Kavsak PA, Maxie MG, Pearl DL, Pyle WG, Physick-Sheard PW.Accumulating evidence indicates intense exercise can be associated with myocardial damage. Investigating the impact of maximal effort on myocardium and exploring possible association of injury with rhythm disturbance requires a high-sensitivity cardiac troponin assay. The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine the effect of racing on serum cardiac troponin I (cTnI) in Standardbred horses using a high-sensitivity assay; (2) to determine the 99th percentile of cTnI in healthy horses and investigate the effect of demographic variables on cTnI prevailing pre-race in Standardbred horses us...
Ohmura H, Mukai K, Takahashi T, Aida H, Jones JH.OBJECTIVE To determine cardiorespiratory responses of Thoroughbreds to uphill and downhill locomotion on a treadmill at identical gradients. ANIMALS 5 highly trained Thoroughbred geldings. PROCEDURES Thoroughbreds were exercised for 2-minute intervals on a treadmill at 1.7, 3.5, 6.0, 8.0, and 10.0 m/s at a 4% incline, 0% incline (horizontal plane), and 4% decline in random order on different days. Stride frequency, stride length, and cardiopulmonary and O-transport variables were measured and analyzed by means of repeated-measures ANOVA and Holm-Šidák pairwise comparisons. RESULTS Horses com...
van den Burg MM, Eizema K, de Graaf-Roelfsema E, van Breda E, Wijnberg ID, van der Kolk JH, Everts ME.To investigate the effects of acute exercise and long-term training on Na(+),K(+)-ATPase content, mRNA isoforms, and protein concentration in equine muscle. Methods: 6 Standardbreds. Methods: Horses performed a bout of exercise on a treadmill before and after 18 weeks of combined interval and endurance training. Muscle biopsy specimens were obtained from vastus lateralis muscle (VLM) and pectoralis descendens muscle (PDM) before and after exercise. The Na(+),K(+)-ATPase content, mRNA isoforms, and protein concentrations were determined by use of [(3)H]ouabain binding, real-time PCR assay, and ...
Schroter RC, Marlin DJ.This study provides an objective method for estimating the oxygen consumption of horses while running on variable slopes so that realistic comparisons may be made of the locomotory transport cost involved in 3-day events, particularly the Speed and Endurance Test, at sites of differing terrain. A knowledge of the work profile over a particular course would enable competitors to plan speed and interval times appropriately along its length. We have developed a semi-empirical, but mechanistically based, model to calculate the oxygen cost of transport [COTpath in ml O2/kg/m path] for running on th...
Cillán-García E, Milner PI, Talbot A, Tucker R, Hendey F, Boswell J, Reardon RJ, Taylor SE.The type and location of deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) lesions may be important in predicting outcome. The objectives of this study were to determine the frequency of different types of DDFT lesions within the hoof capsule and to determine whether lesion type predicts return to athletic activity. Lesions of the DDFT were divided into: core lesions, dorsal border lesions and parasagittal splits. Lesion location was documented, and follow-up information was obtained by telephone survey at least 18 months after diagnosis. Of 168 horses with primary DDFT injury, 54 horses had dorsal border les...
The Journal of physiologyJuly 1, 2013
Volume 591, Issue 18 4499-4513 doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2013.257956
Vengust M, Staempfli H, Viel L, Swenson ER, Heigenhauser G. During intense exercise in horses the transvascular fluid flux in the pulmonary circulation (Jv-a) represents 4% of cardiac output (Q). This fluid flux has been attributed to an increase in pulmonary transmural hydrostatic forces, increases in perfused microvascular surface area, and reversible alterations in capillary permeability under conditions of high flow and pressure. Erythrocyte fluid efflux, however, accounts for a significant fraction of Jv-a. In the lung the Jacobs-Stewart cycle occurs with diffusion of CO2 into alveolar space with possible accompanying chloride (Cl-) and water ...
McGill S, Hayes M, Tumlin K, Coleman R.Equine farms are building both stables for the horses to live in and additional facilities to train and work horses (Kidd et al., 1997). For many of these farms, an outdoor arena that has an all-weather footing is the first working facility built. During inclement weather the ability to train in the outdoor arenas is inhibited, which in turn means the trainers, riders, and farms lose income as money is only made when horses are working, training, and competing. Indoor arenas allow for horses to continue to be worked no matter the weather conditions. The equine industry contributes a total of $...
Bowers J, Slocombe R.To determine commonly used girth tensions in Thoroughbred racehorses in the Melbourne metropolitan area. Methods: A prospective industry survey. Methods: Strappers were instructed to tension girths, using the same saddle, under-saddle packing and girth, sufficiently to hold the saddle for racing. These tensions were continuously recorded by an in-line load cell in the girth. Seventeen strappers from five stables participated in the study, which was conducted on 91 horses. Results: Resting girth tensions varied considerably. The mean tension on inhalation was 13 +/- 0.4 kg. Male strappers recor...
