Topic:Horse Training
Horse training involves the systematic process of teaching horses specific behaviors and skills to enhance their performance and manageability. This process encompasses a variety of techniques and methods tailored to the individual horse's temperament, age, and intended use, such as riding, racing, or working. Training regimens aim to develop desired traits such as obedience, agility, and endurance while ensuring the horse's physical and mental well-being. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore various aspects of horse training, including methodologies, behavioral outcomes, and the impact on equine welfare and performance.
Training the novice stallion for natural breeding. There are myriad problems that can arise when training the novice stallion for natural service. Many problems can be avoided by proper early training of the novice stallion. In the final analysis, common sense should prevail. The major ally of common sense is patience. One should keep in mind that the goal is to have a stallion behave in a disciplined manner, allowing for his expression of libido and effective mounting, intromission, and ejaculation. This is accomplished through judicious training and, as with any training process, takes some time and work. Proper training will help circumvent...
Cardiorespiratory parameters in draught horses before and after short term draught work pulling loads. In order to establish the relationship between draught force and cardiorespiratory responses to exercise heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), arterial and venous blood gases, pH, hemoglobin concentration and temperature were measured in five draught horses during rest, immediately after exercise and 30 min post-exercise under field conditions. A wagon equipped with an odometer and a hydraulic dynamometer was used for measuring distance and draught force. The wagon was loaded with 946 kg for the low load, 1,979 kg for the medium load and 2,994 kg for the high load, and drawn for a distance o...
Effects of induced alkalosis on performance in thoroughbreds during a 1,600-m race. There is considerable debate regarding the ergogenic effects of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) on racing performance in horses. Anecdotal evidence suggests that NaHCO3 improves performance by increasing the buffering capacity of the blood and delaying the onset of hydrogen ion-induced fatigue. In a cross-over study, 16 Thoroughbred racehorses were given an aqueous solution of NaHCO3 (0.4 g/kg in 1 litre H2O) or a control treatment (1 litre H2O) before a 1600-m race. Treatments were administered 3 h before the race, which was the time to peak buffering capacity (2.5-3.0 h) determined in a separate...
Ultrastructural changes in skeletal muscle after fatiguing exercise. Thoroughbred horses were exercised to fatigue at 40, 85, and 100% of their maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) on a treadmill and completed a 1,600-m gallop on a track to identify the effect of exercise of various durations and intensities on the ultrastructure of mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) from the middle gluteal muscle. The percentage of the total area occupied by mitochondria and SR increased in electron micrographs of muscle samples collected at the termination of exercise and at 30 and 60 min of recovery compared with those collected before exercise. Mitochondrial area i...
Effect of competition on performance of thoroughbred racehorses. The effect of competition and the influence of age and sex on performance were examined in a study of 18 Thoroughbred racehorses. The horses performed two solo and two competitive runs at 1,200 and 1,600 m for a total of eight runs. No group ran faster during competition, which may have been a reflection of the quality of horses used for this study and their susceptibility to stress-induced impairment of performance. Males showed no significant difference between competitive and solo run times, whereas females were consistently slower during competition. Males ran significantly faster than fem...
Follow-up of 28 horses with third metacarpal unicortical stress fractures following treatment with osteostixis. The results of 31 intracortical dorsal metacarpal stress fractures in 28 horses following unicortical osteostixis were reviewed. The incidence was predominately in the middle third of the lateral aspect of the left metacarpus, and males were affected more commonly. Approximately half of the surgical procedures were performed with the horse in the standing position. The mean times to return to training and racing were 4.25 and 6.9 months respectively. There was no correlation between time taken to return to racing and position of surgery. Complications experienced included lack of suture remova...
Total carnitine content of the middle gluteal muscle of thoroughbred horses: normal values, variability and effect of acute exercise. There was no detectable loss of total carnitine associated with intense exercise from the middle gluteal muscle of Thoroughbred horses. Measurements made on a single biopsy obtained during the course of a normal training and exercise programme may, therefore, be considered representative of the normal content at rest. The variability in total carnitine content within the normal muscle biopsy area amounted to 13.2 per cent of the normal mean content. Approximately 50 per cent of this variability could be attributed to covariation with citrate synthase, to which it was highly significantly corre...
Adenine nucleotide degradation in the thoroughbred horse with increasing exercise duration. Adenine nucleotide (AN) degradation has been shown to occur during intense exercise in the horse and in man, at or close to the point of fatigue. The aim of the study was to compare the concentrations of muscle inosine 5'-monophosphate (IMP) and plasma ammonia (NH3) during intense exercise with the concentrations of muscle and blood lactate. Seven trained thoroughbred horses were used in the study. Each exercised on a treadmill for periods of between 30 s and 150 s, at 11 and/or 12 m.s-1. Blood and muscle samples were taken and analysed for lactate and NH3 and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), ...
[Useful life, departure rates and causes in sport horses]. A review of the operational life, attrition and lethality rates, major causes of attrition and death for thoroughbred and standardbred race horses and competition horses is given. Because of the lack of data, it was not possible to supply answers for all the sport disciplines. The operational life in sports for thoroughbred race horses was 3.3 years, for standardbred horses 4.1 and for competition horses 5.5 years. Attrition and lethality rates could be determined only for the thoroughbred race horses. The yearly rates of attrition and lethality were 30% and 2% respectively. The major causes o...
[Horse racing and animal welfare]. Intensive strain of racing-horses during training and race is not an end in itself but should be understood from the social task to create exceptionally efficient horses. This roughness in sports obliges the responsible associations to issue rigorous regulations for the protection of horses. In this paper, some physical and psychical disorders of racing-horses are described. Improved keeping conditions as well as performance-adapted training methods will help to avoid defects. The aids being used during training and races are critically investigated on their effects according to the regulation...
Effects of treadmill exercise on cortical bone in the third metacarpus of young horses. The effects of exercise and relative inactivity on cortical bone were compared in young horses. Two groups were used; one was given a 14-week programme of exercise (n = 6) and the other kept as unexercised controls (n = 6). The first nine weeks of exercise involved trotting and cantering (2 to 4 km d-1 at speeds up to 12 m s-1) on a treadmill set at an incline of 3 degrees. Over the next five weeks the horses were trained at near maximal speeds (that is, up to 14.5 m s-1) with no incline of the treadmill. At the end of the programme marked differences in cortical porosity and distribution of s...
Equine thyroid function tests: a preliminary investigation. A similar and significant (P less than 0.001) increase in plasma thyroxine (T4) concentration was seen in seven clinically normal thoroughbred horses 2 h after the intravenous administration of either 2.5 iu or 5 iu of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) with a peak response around 4 h after administration. The intravenous administration of 0.2, 0.5 or 1 mg thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) resulted in a significant (P less than 0.01) increase in T4 concentration in three groups of animals; six thoroughbreds in full work, five thoroughbreds at rest and four ponies at rest. The peak response w...
Plasma beta-endorphin and adrenocorticotrophin in young horses in training. A controlled period of submaximal exercise on a treadmill was used as a standardised stress test in 6 young horses to monitor the effects of training. Circulating plasma concentrations of immunoreactive beta-endorphin (IR beta-EP) were measured before, during and after the exercise period. The stress test was conducted on 3 occasions during an intensive training program lasting 14 weeks. In week 3 a marked increase in plasma IR beta-EP (P = 0.003) was demonstrated as a result of training, but by the last exercise test performed in week 9 no significant increase in plasma IR beta-EP concentrati...
A technique for transrectal ultrasonography of stallions during ejaculation. A technique was developed in which the accessory sex glands of stallions were visualized with transrectal ultrasonography during ejaculation. The technique was judged to be effective, since 10 of 11 stallions were trained to tolerate transrectal ultrasonography during ejaculation; they ejaculated during 195 of 200 attempts, and acceptable visualization of their accessory sex glands and excurrent ducts occurred during 97 of 195 ejaculations. Sixty-five percent (89 136 ) of the recordings were successful for stallions that weighed more than 300 kg, whereas 14% (8 59 ) of the recordings were succ...
Common horse sense. This research article corrects a common misconception about the energy metabolism in horses during short sprinting and long-distance running events, emphasizing that short sprints are primarily powered by anaerobic activity, […]
Use of manual stimulation for collection of semen from an atactic stallion unable to mount. A 9-year-old atactic breeding stallion was trained to ejaculate, with only manual stimulation, while standing on the ground. Ejaculates obtained yielded fertile semen with morphologic and motility characteristics within the range for normal stallions. This method extended the breeding life of a stallion unable to mount a live or dummy mare or to ejaculate into an artificial vagina while standing on the ground.
Clenbuterol plasma concentrations after repeated oral administration and its effects on cardio-respiratory and blood lactate responses to exercise in healthy Standardbred horses. To evaluate the effects of clenbuterol on cardio-respiratory parameters and blood lactate relation to exercise tolerance, experimental horses performed standardized exercise tests on a high-speed treadmill before and after administration of the drug. Clenbuterol was administered in feed to six healthy Standardbreds at a dose rate of 0.8 micrograms/kg b.wt twice daily for 5.5 days. Each horse was tested twice, without and with a respiratory mask, during two consecutive days. One week elapsed between the baseline tests without drug and the tests with clenbuterol treatment (each horse served as i...
Treadmill exercise testing. Treadmill installation and training protocols used for clinical evaluations of equine athletes. The use of motorized treadmills has made it possible to evaluate equine poor performance with sophisticated diagnostic techniques during peak exercise. Treadmill exercise tests currently being used for clinical evaluations include treadmill gait analysis, dynamic hoof balancing, endoscopic evaluation of upper airway function, and exercise performance profiling. Large motorized treadmills (1 to 1.5 m in width and 4 to 5 m in length) are best suited for clinical evaluations. Ideally, the treadmill should be installed in-ground using a pit. This type of installation results in the tread surface b...
Quantitative evaluation of the remodeling response of the proximal sesamoid bones to training-related stimuli in Thoroughbreds. Eight untrained 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses were used in a study of the remodeling response of the proximal sesamoid bone (PSB) to training-related stimuli. Two horses each were assigned to 1 of 4 groups: group 1, untrained, pasture turnout (control); group 2, modified-classically trained, dirt track; group 3, classically trained, dirt track; and group 4, classically trained, wood chip track. Horses were given fluorochromic bone labels every 28 days during training. All horses were euthanatized after 5 months of training, and the proximal sesamoid bones (PSB) were removed. A midsagittal sec...
Stimulus generalization, discrimination learning, and peak shift in horses. Using horses, we investigated three aspects of the stimulus control of lever-pressing behavior: stimulus generalization, discrimination learning, and peak shift. Nine solid black circles, ranging in size from 0.5 in. to 4.5 in. (1.3 cm to 11.4 cm) served as stimuli. Each horse was shaped, using successive approximations, to press a rat lever with its lip in the presence of a positive stimulus, the 2.5-in. (6.4-cm) circle. Shaping proceeded quickly and was comparable to that of other laboratory organisms. After responding was maintained on a variable-interval 30-s schedule, stimulus generalizat...
Clinical relevance of radiographic findings in proximal sesamoid bones of two-year-old standardbreds in their first year of race training. Radiographs of all 4 fetlocks of 71 Standardbred racehorses were obtained at 3-month intervals for 1 year. Radiographic findings in the abaxial surface of the proximal sesamoid bones were classified into 3 types according to the severity of lesions, and correlation was made with clinical findings at time of examination. Type-1 lesions (1 or 2 linear defects less than or equal to 1 mm wide) were detected in 55% of horses at the start of training; clinical signs of disease were not manifested, and lesions did not become clinically relevant. Type-2 lesions (3 or more linear defects less than or e...
Hazards of horse-riding as a popular sport. The increasing incidence of horse-riding accidents, which are often severe in nature, prompted a pilot study of a questionnaire designed to elucidate the cause of such accidents. It was hoped that, on a larger scale, the information gleaned would highlight possible preventative measures which might improve the safety of an important recreational pursuit enjoyed by young and old from many walks of life. A retrospective study of riders sustaining serious spinal injuries admitted to Stoke Mandeville Hospital was compared with riders sustaining minor but significant injuries as the accidents came ...
Arthroscopic removal of osteochondral fragments of the palmar/plantar aspect of the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joints. This paper presents the results of arthroscopic surgery in 42 Standardbred trotters and three Finnish horses. Forty-five horses were operated on. The age range was one to seven years; 73 per cent of the horses were three years old or younger. Horses showed a variety of clinical signs ranging from moderate to severe lameness at slow speeds, to obscure lameness manifesting only at high speeds. Synovial effusion of the fetlock joint was rare. In this series, 44 horses that had Type I fragments and one horse that had Type III fragments were operated on. Of the 45 horses operated on, 23 (51 per cen...
Relative incidence of dorsal metacarpal disease in young Thoroughbred racehorses training on two different surfaces. The relative incidence of dorsal metacarpal disease was examined in two groups of Thoroughbred racehorses training on dissimilar surfaces (dirt and wood fibre). The horses and training methods appeared to be similar. The incidence of disease was significantly greater in the group training on dirt. There was no significant difference in the age distribution of incidence between the two groups and there was no association of incidence with sex or age within the training group. The number of fast miles worked by the two groups prior to the onset of dorsal metacarpal disease was lower in the group...
Comparison of yearling, two-year-old and adult Thoroughbreds using a standardised exercise test. The purpose of this study was to compare exercise measurements in yearling, two-year-old and adult Thoroughbreds using a standardised treadmill incremental exercise test. Peak oxygen consumption (VO2 peak: 128.0 +/- 2.1, 140.0 +/- 2.1, 163.7 +/- 3.4; ml/kg/min +/- se, P less than 0.05), peak packed cell volume (PCV peak: 0.50 +/- 0.01, 0.58 +/- 0.01, 0.64 +/- 0.01 litres/litre +/- se, P less than 0.05) and the maximum number of steps completed in the exercise test (STEPmax: 7.7 +/- 0.1, 8.1 +/- 0.1, 8.6 +/- 0.1; steps +/- se, P less than 0.05) increased with age and degree of physical activity...
Muscle fibre type composition in untrained and endurance-trained Andalusian and Arab horses. Muscle biopsies were taken from the middle gluteal muscle of 68 stallions (52 Andalusian [AN] and 16 Arab [AR]) ranging from six to 12 years of age. Seventeen AN horses and eight AR horses were untrained, while the remainder underwent active endurance training for 6 months. Fifteen AN horses were moderately endurance-trained while the other 20 AN horses and eight AR horses were strongly endurance-trained. Percentages of type I and type II fibres were similar in all groups (P greater than 0.05). The group of horses with the hardest training had a higher percentage of type IIA fibres (AN P less ...
Mechanical and morphometric analysis of the third carpal bone of Thoroughbreds. The third carpal bone (C3) was collected from both forelimbs of 27 Thoroughbreds. On the basis of age, training, and history, specimens were assigned to 1 of 5 groups: yearling, untrained horses (group 1, n = 4); 2- to 3-year-old, untrained horses (group 2, n = 7); trained 2-year-old horses (group 3, n = 6); trained 3-year-old horses (group 4, n = 6); and 3-year-old, trained horses with carpal pathologic features (group 5, n = 4). A transverse section of subchondral bone 5-mm thick was cut in a precise fashion 10 mm below the proximal articular surface of all specimens. After high-detail radio...
Monitoring surface conditions of a Thoroughbred racetrack. During a pilot study at a Thoroughbred racetrack, information was collected to include weather conditions and track surface properties (moisture content, composition, strength, and coefficient of friction between surface and hoof). Measured weather variables did not correlate to any pattern of horse injuries of breakdowns. Surface moisture content was variable, whereas the moisture content of the compacted cushion was constant. Track surfaces around the starting chutes were more compacted than were other areas of the track. Next to the rail, track surface was softer than the surface toward the...
Glycosaminoglycan concentrations in horse plasma and serum. Differences with other animal species and identification of affecting factors. 1. The measured values of acid glycosaminoglycan (GAG) concentration in plasma or in serum show significant differences between trained and untrained horses and among sedentary horses and other animal species (cattle, rabbit, sheep). 2. Diurnal variations in serum GAG levels are reported (cattle), and changes in plasma GAG concentrations after road transport (horses) and in late pregnancy (mares, cows), while sex, age and breed do not affect them.