The equine immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work collaboratively to defend against pathogens and maintain homeostasis. It consists of innate and adaptive components, each with distinct functions and mechanisms. The innate immune system provides the first line of defense through physical barriers, phagocytic cells, and the complement system. The adaptive immune system involves lymphocytes, such as B cells and T cells, which generate specific responses to antigens and provide immunological memory. Research in equine immunology explores the interactions between these components, the impact of genetic and environmental factors on immune function, and the development of vaccines and therapeutics. This page gathers peer-reviewed studies and scholarly articles focusing on the mechanisms, regulation, and clinical applications of the equine immune system in health and disease.
Pihl TH, Illigen KE, Houen G.Polyclonal antibodies are relatively easy to produce and may supplement monoclonal antibodies for some applications or even have some advantages. The choice of species for production of (peptide) antisera is based on practical considerations, including availability of immunogen (vaccine) and animals. Two major factors govern the production of antisera: the nature of adaptive immune responses, which take place over days/weeks and ethical guidelines for animal welfare. Here, simple procedures for immunization of mice, rabbits, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and chickens are presented.
Bannai H, Nemoto M, Tsujimura K, Yamanaka T, Maeda K, Kondo T.To increase the sensitivity of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for equine herpesvirus type 4 (EHV-4) that uses a 12-mer peptide of glycoprotein G (gG4-12-mer: MKNNPIYSEGSL) [4], we used a longer peptide consisting of a 24-mer repeat sequence (gG4-24-mer: MKNNPIYSEGSLMLNVQHDDSIHT) as an antigen. Sera of horses experimentally infected with EHV-4 reacted much more strongly to the gG4-24-mer peptide than to the gG4-12-mer peptide. We used peptide ELISAs to test paired sera from horses naturally infected with EHV-4 (n=40). gG4-24-mer ELISA detected 37 positive samples (92.5%), whereas ...
Behrens NE, Gershwin LJ.Hypersensitivity reactions, such as hives or fatal anaphylactic shock, in response to vaccination constitute a health hazard for horses that develop allergies to vaccine components. In such horses vaccination with viral vaccines stimulates an IgE response to non-target antigens. Viral vaccines share contaminating non-target proteins, such as bovine serum albumin (BSA); these antigens can stimulate IgE production with each exposure. We hypothesized that the addition of a CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) administered in conjunction with a West Nile virus vaccine would decrease the IgE response; th...
Kumar J, Chaudhury A, Bera BC, Kumar R, Kumar R, Tatu U, Yadav SC.The present immuno-diagnostic method using soluble antigens from whole cell lysate antigen for trypanosomosis have certain inherent problems like lack of standardized and reproducible antigens, as well as ethical issues due to in vivo production, that could be alleviated by in vitro production. In the present study we have identified heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) from T. evansi proteome. The nucleotide sequence of T. evansi HSP70 was 2116 bp, which encodes 690 amino acid residues. The phylogenetic analysis of T. evansi HSP70 showed that T. evansi occurred within Trypanosoma clade and is most c...
Bergmann T, Moore C, Sidney J, Miller D, Tallmadge R, Harman RM, Oseroff C, Wriston A, Shabanowitz J, Hunt DF, Osterrieder N, Peters B, Antczak DF....Here we describe a detailed quantitative peptide-binding motif for the common equine leukocyte antigen (ELA) class I allele Eqca-1*00101, present in roughly 25 % of Thoroughbred horses. We determined a preliminary binding motif by sequencing endogenously bound ligands. Subsequently, a positional scanning combinatorial library (PSCL) was used to further characterize binding specificity and derive a quantitative motif involving aspartic acid in position 2 and hydrophobic residues at the C-terminus. Using this motif, we selected and tested 9- and 10-mer peptides derived from the equine herpesvir...
Aharonson-Raz K, Steinman A, Kavkovsky A, Bumbarov V, Berlin D, Lichter-Peled A, Berke O, Klement E.It is claimed that the distribution of Culicoides-borne viruses is highly influenced by climate. Equine encephalosis virus (EEV) is a Culicoides-borne orbivirus which affects horses and was recently found to be endemic in Israel. To test whether climate is a crucial factor in the geographical distribution of EEV, we collected blood samples from horses in Israel during the years 2002, 2007 and 2010 and tested them for the abundance of antibodies to EEV. Samples were also collected in 2011 from horses that were seronegative to the virus in 2010, to determine the rate of infection with EEV. It wa...
Klier J, Geis S, Steuer J, Reese S, Fuchs S, Mueller RS, Winter G, Gehlen H.New therapeutic strategies to modulate immune responses in human and equine allergic airway diseases are under extensive investigation. Stimulation of Treg cells with immune modulating agents is a novel therapeutic option. Objective: The aim of this field study was to compare the effects of a nebulised nanoparticulate CpG immunotherapy (CpG-GNP) with and without specific allergens. Methods: Longitudinal clinical study comparing 2 therapeutic options. Methods: Twenty RAO-affected horses were divided into 2 treatment groups (CpG alone and CpG with allergens). Two specific allergens were selected...
Toombs-Ruane LJ, Riley CB, Rosanowski SM, Kendall AT, Benschop J.Decreased efficacy of veterinary antimicrobials and increased prevalence of multi-drug resistance (MDR) is of concern, but little is known of antimicrobial resistance encompassing the New Zealand (NZ) equine population. Recent concerns have arisen over the emergence of multi-resistant bacteria [1], especially on NZ stud farms where antibiotics are frequently used for respiratory disease without veterinary input [2]. Objective: To describe bacterial culture and antimicrobial sensitivity results from respiratory samples submitted of young horses (4 weeks to 3 years old). Methods: Retrospective s...
Abdelgawad A, Hermes R, Damiani A, Lamglait B, Czirják GÁ, East M, Aschenborn O, Wenker C, Kasem S, Osterrieder N, Greenwood AD.Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) causes respiratory disorders and abortion in equids while EHV-1 regularly causes equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM), a stroke-like syndrome following endothelial cell infection in horses. Both EHV-1 and EHV-9 infections of non-definitive hosts often result in neuronal infection and high case fatality rates. Hence, EHV-1 and EHV-9 are somewhat unusual herpesviruses and lack strict host specificity, and the true extent of their host ranges have remained unclear. In order to determine the seroprevalence of EHV-1 and EHV-9, a sensitive and specific pepti...
Wagner B, Goodman LB, Babasyan S, Freer H, Torsteinsdóttir S, Svansson V, Björnsdóttir S, Perkins GA.Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) continues to cause severe outbreaks of abortions or myeloencephalopathy in horses despite widely used vaccination. The aim of this work was to determine the effects of frequent vaccination with an inactivated EHV vaccine on immune development in horses. Fifteen EHV-1 naïve mares were vaccinated a total of 5 times over a period of 8 months with intervals of 20, 60, 90 and 60 days between vaccine administrations. Total antibody and antibody isotype responses were evaluated with a new sensitive EHV-1 Multiplex assay to glycoprotein C (gC) and gD for up to 14 mon...
Mueller RS, Janda J, Jensen-Jarolim E, Rhyner C, Marti E.Allergic diseases in animals are increasingly gaining importance in veterinary practice and as research models. For intradermal testing and allergen immunotherapy, a good knowledge of relevant allergens for the individual species is of great importance. Currently, the knowledge about relevant veterinary allergens is based on sensitization rates identified by intradermal testing or serum testing for allergen-specific IgE; crude extracts are the basis for most evaluations. Only a few studies provide evidence about the molecular structure of (particularly) dust mite, insect and mould allergens in...
Mini-myoglobin (mini-HHMb) is a fragment of horse-heart myoglobin (HHMb) considered to be the prototype of the product encoded by the central exon of the HHMb gene. For this reason, mini-HHMb has been studied extensively showing that carbonylation and oxygenation properties of the ferrous form are similar to those of the full-length protein, while kinetics and thermodynamics of azide binding to the ferric form are significantly different from those of HHMb. To analyze the structure-function relationships in mini-HHMb and the role of conformational fluctuations in ligand accessibility, the mole...
Meulenbroeks C, van der Meide NM, Willemse T, Rutten VP, Tijhaar E.Ponies may suffer from Insect bite hypersensitivity (IBH), an allergic IgE-mediated pruritic skin disorder, induced by allergens from biting midges of the Culicoides spp. Objective: To determine whether recombinant Culicoides obsoletus allergens are able to activate T cells of ponies exposed to C. obsoletus and whether these allergen-specific responses differ between IBH-affected and healthy ponies. Methods: Ten IBH-affected Shetland ponies and 10 age-matched healthy controls taken from the same stables, to ensure similar exposure to midges. Methods: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) w...
McQueen CM, Dindot SV, Foster MJ, Cohen ND.Rhodococcus equi pneumonia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in neonatal foals. Much effort has been made to identify preventative measures and new treatments for R. equi with limited success. With a growing focus in the medical community on understanding the genetic basis of disease susceptibility, investigators have begun to evaluate the interaction of the genetics of the foal with R. equi. This review describes past efforts to understand the genetic basis underlying R. equi susceptibility and tolerance. It also highlights the genetic technology available to study horses and des...
Gardner AK, Kelly CS, van Eps AW, Burns TA, Watts MR, Belknap JK.In sepsis models, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are reported to incite inflammatory injury to tissues and are purported to be a therapeutic target. Objective: To assess MAPK signalling in lamellae in sepsis-related laminitis (SRL) at different time points after induction of laminitis via carbohydrate overload, and to determine the effect of regional deep hypothermia (RDH) on MAPK signalling. Methods: In vitro study using archived tissue samples. Methods: Lamellar concentrations of MAPKs were assessed in archived lamellar samples from 2 studies: 1) the starch gruel model of SRL with...
Lange-Consiglio A, Accogli G, Cremonesi F, Desantis S.Amniotic epithelial cells (AECs) spontaneously transform into amniotic mesenchymal cells (AMCs) in vitro during cell culture. Glycocalyx was analyzed to identify the glycan pattern in AECs, AMCs and epithelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiated cells (EMTCs). Pure cell cultures were derived using cloned AEC and AMC cell lines obtained by the dilution technique from amniotic membranes. Mesenchymal cells generated by differentiation of clonal epithelial cells were considered transdifferentiated. Immunocytoscreen, in vitro multipotent differentiation and molecular characterization of EMTCs were perf...
Badial PR, Tallmadge RL, Miller S, Stokol T, Richards K, Borges AS, Felippe MJ.Mature B cell neoplasms cover a spectrum of diseases involving lymphoid tissues (lymphoma) or blood (leukemia), with an overlap between these two presentations. Previous studies describing equine lymphoid neoplasias have not included analyses of clonality using molecular techniques. The objective of this study was to use molecular techniques to advance the classification of B cell lymphoproliferative diseases in five adult equine patients with a rare condition of monoclonal gammopathy, B cell leukemia, and concurrent lymphadenopathy (lymphoma/leukemia). The B cell neoplasms were phenotypically...
Laval K, Favoreel HW, Poelaert KC, Van Cleemput J, Nauwynck HJ.Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is a main cause of respiratory disease, abortion, and encephalomyelopathy in horses. Monocytic cells (CD172a(+)) are the main carrier cells of EHV-1 during primary infection and are proposed to serve as a "Trojan horse" to facilitate the dissemination of EHV-1 to target organs. However, the mechanism by which EHV-1 is transferred from CD172a(+) cells to endothelial cells (EC) remains unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate EHV-1 transmission between these two cell types. We hypothesized that EHV-1 employs specific strategies to promote the adhesion o...
Moghtaderi M, Farjadian S, Hosseini Z, Raayat A.The aim of this study has been to investigate the frequency of sensitization to horse allergens and clinical symptoms in horse riders. Methods: A total of 42 horse riders and 50 healthy individuals were examined by means of skin prick tests for a panel of horse and common animal allergens, and pulmonary function tests were done by spirometry. Results: The rate of sensitization to horse allergens was 31% as proven by the skin prick test in horse riders whereas horse sensitization was not seen in the control group. Occupational allergy symptoms were reported by 19 horse riders. Two horse riders ...
Walther S, Rusitzka TV, Diesterbeck US, Czerny CP.Our understanding of how equine immunoglobulin genes are organized has increased significantly in recent years. For equine heavy chains, 52 IGHV, 40 IGHD, 8 IGHJ and 11 IGHC are present. Seven of these IGHCs are gamma chain genes. Sequence diversity is increasing between fetal, neonatal, foal and adult age. The kappa light chain contains 60 IGKV, 5 IGKJ and 1 IGKC, whereas there are 144 IGLV, 7 IGLJ, and 7 IGLC for the lambda light chain, which is expressed predominantly in horses. Significant transcriptional differences for IGLV and IGLC are identified in different breeds. Allotypic and allel...
Nautscher N, Bauer A, Steffl M, Amselgruber WM.This study described corneal morphology in different domestic animals using histological and immunohistochemical methods. Specifically, we evaluated the species-specific distribution pattern of cytokeratins (CKs) and aquaporins (AQPs) to assess their contribution to the strength and transparency of the cornea, respectively. Methods: Corneal sections (2 μm thick) were obtained from 28 pigs, 11 cows, two goats, six horses, four dogs, and five cats and stained with hematoxylin-eosin and periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) reaction. Immunohistochemistry was also performed using CK1 to 3 and AQP1 and 5 an...
Niedzwiedz A, Jaworski Z, Kubiak K.Equine recurrent airway obstruction (RAO), also known as heaves, is one of the most common respiratory problems in older horses. When RAO-affected horses stay pastured or in a dust-free environment for a prolonged time, clinical signs as well as airway inflammation wane. A number of environmental, immunologic, infectious, and genetic factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of RAO, and the immunologic basis of this disease is still poorly understood. Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the concentrations of allergen-specific IgE in the serum of horses suffering from R...
de Souza MV, Silva MB, Pinto Jde O, Lima MB, Crepaldi J, Lopes GF, dos Santos HB, Ribeiro RI, Thomé RG.This study evaluated the immunohistochemical expression of type I (COL I) and III (COL III) collagens during the healing process of skin treated with leukocyte-poor platelet-rich plasma (LP-PRP). Seven healthy gelding crossbred horses aged 16 to 17 years were used. Two rectangle-shaped wounds were created surgically in the right and left gluteal regions. Twelve hours after wound induction, 0.5 mL of the LP-PRP was administered in each edge of the wounds of one of the gluteal regions. The contralateral region was used as control (CG). Three samples were obtained: after wound induction (T0), 1...
Olofsson KM, Hjertner B, Fossum C, Press CM, Lindberg R.Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in horses is an idiopathic disorder, encompassing different types of chronic intestinal inflammation. The pathogenesis of the disease remains to be established, but it has been suggested that an imbalance between regulatory T cells (Tregs) and T helper 17 (Th17)-associated cytokines and altered toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression is associated with intestinal inflammation in other species. The aim of the present study was to quantify Tregs in rectal biopsies from horses affected with IBD by immunohistochemistry and to evaluate expression of genes encoding in...
Malalana F, Stylianides A, McGowan C.Equine recurrent uveitis (ERU) is a spontaneous disease characterised by repeated episodes of intraocular inflammation. The epidemiology of ERU has not been fully elucidated, but the condition appears to be much more common in horses than is recurrent uveitis in humans, especially in certain breeds and geographical regions. Both humans and horses show a similarly altered immune response and a marked autoimmune response as the primary disease pathophysiology. However, an inciting cause is not always clear. Potential inciting factors in horses include microbial agents such as Leptospira spp. Mic...
Nielsen MK, Scare J, Gravatte HS, Bellaw JL, Prado JC, Reinemeyer CR.Strongylus vulgaris is the most pathogenic nematode parasite of horses. Its extensive migration in the mesenteric blood vessels can lead to life-threatening intestinal infarctions. Recent work has shown that this parasite is still identified among managed horse populations. A serum enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) has been developed for the detection of migrating larvae of S. vulgaris. Previous work has documented an increase in ELISA values following larvicidal treatment with ivermectin and suggested that the target parasite antigen is primarily produced by the later larval stages. T...
Marti E, Wang X, Jambari NN, Rhyner C, Olzhausen J, Pérez-Barea JJ, Figueredo GP, Alcocer MJ.Insect bite hypersensitivity (IBH) is a seasonal recurrent skin allergy of horses caused by IgE-mediated reactions to allergens present in the saliva of biting insects of the genus Culicoides, and possibly also Simulium and Stomoxys species. In this work we show that protein microarrays containing complex extracts and pure proteins, including recombinant Culicoides allergens, can be used as a powerful technique for the diagnosis of IBH. Besides the obvious advantages such as general profiling and use of few microliters of samples, this microarray technique permits automation and allows the gen...
Passamonti F, Veronesi F, Cappelli K, Capomaccio S, Reginato A, Miglio A, Vardi DM, Stefanetti V, Coletti M, Bazzica C, Pepe M.Lyme borreliosis (LB) is a multi-systemic tick-borne disease affecting both humans and animals, including horses, and is caused by a group of interrelated spirochetes classified within the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) complex. Despite the high reported seroprevalence in the European equine population for B. burgdorferi s.l., to-date no documented clinical cases have been described. A 6-year-old Paint gelding was referred with a history of three weeks of fever, intermittent lameness and digital flexor tendon sheath effusion of the right hind limb. Based on a strict diagnostic protocol...
Mählmann K, Feige K, Juhls C, Endmann A, Schuberth HJ, Oswald D, Hellige M, Doherr M, Cavalleri JM.Equine melanoma has a high incidence in grey horses. Xenogenic DNA vaccination may represent a promising therapeutic approach against equine melanoma as it successfully induced an immunological response in other species suffering from melanoma and in healthy horses. In a clinical study, twenty-seven, grey, melanoma-bearing, horses were assigned to three groups (n = 9) and vaccinated on days 1, 22, and 78 with DNA vectors encoding for equine (eq) IL-12 and IL-18 alone or in combination with either human glycoprotein (hgp) 100 or human tyrosinase (htyr). Horses were vaccinated intramuscularl...
Ye C, Yan W, McDonough PL, McDonough SP, Mohamed H, Divers TJ, Chang YF, Yang Z.Leptospirosis, caused by Leptospira spp., is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in the world. We tested four recombinant proteins of Leptospira interrogans, namely, rLipL21, rLoa22, rLipL32, and rLigACon4-8, to evaluate their potential for use as antigens for the diagnosis of equine leptospirosis. We employed equine sera (n = 130) that were microscopic agglutination test (MAT) negative and sera (n = 176) that were MAT positive for the 5 serovars that most commonly cause equine leptospirosis. The sensitivity and specificity of ELISA compared to MAT were 82.39% and 86.15%, respectively, fo...
Böse R, Daemen K.Babesia caballi-infected or normal equine erythrocytes were solubilized in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) buffer and analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Western blotting. Antigens were allowed to react with sera from horses experimentally or field-infected with B. caballi and with sera from non-infected horses. Major babesial antigens recognized by immune sera had apparent mol. wts of 141, 112, 70, 50, 48, 34, and 30 kDa. The polypeptides at 50 and 48 kDa were recognized earliest and throughout infection, but also weakly by 3/100 equine sera tested negative and 1/33...
Erhard MH, Luft C, Remler HP, Stangassinger M.To measure the immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentration in colostrum, milk and serum samples, a sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) detection system was developed. The system provided high reproducibility and sensitivity for routine diagnostic purposes. The period of fluctuating serum concentrations of IgG was monitored in new-born foals and their mares for a period of 6 weeks postnatum and postpartum, respectively. All foals received colostrum from their mares. The mean IgG concentration in the precolostral mare serum was approximately 19.0 mg/ml and decreased significantly to 13.8...
Holmes MA, Townsend HG, Kohler AK, Hussey S, Breathnach C, Barnett C, Holland R, Lunn DP.Horses are commonly vaccinated to protect against pathogens which are responsible for diseases which are endemic within the general horse population, such as equine influenza virus (EIV) and equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1), and against a variety of diseases which are less common but which lead to greater morbidity and mortality, such as eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus (EEE) and tetanus. This study consisted of two trials which investigated the antigenicity of commercially available vaccines licensed in the USA to protect against EIV, EHV-1 respiratory disease, EHV-1 abortion, EEE and tetan...
Hedges JF, Balasuriya UB, Ahmad S, Timoney PJ, McCollum WH, Yilma T, MacLachlan NJ.Indirect enzyme linked immunosorbant assays (ELISAs) utilizing the three major structural proteins (M, N, and G(L)) of equine arteritis virus (EAV) expressed from recombinant baculoviruses were developed. A large panel of sera collected from uninfected horses, and from animals experimentally and naturally infected with EAV or vaccinated with the modified live virus vaccine against equine viral arteritis, were used to characterize the humoral immune response of horses to the three major EAV structural proteins. The data suggest that the M protein was the major target of the equine antibody resp...
Flaminio MJ, LaCombe V, Kohn CW, Antczak DF.A 12-year-old Quarter Horse mare that was nonresponsive to medical treatment was evaluated for chronic respiratory disease and hepatobiliary disease. Serum immunoglobulin concentrations were measured by use of radial immunodiffusion that revealed trace to nondetectable concentrations of IgG, IgG(T), IgM, and IgA. Use of serum protein electrophoresis confirmed agammaglobulinemia by the absence of the expected peak in the gamma region. In addition, vaccination with tetanus toxoid did not result in specific immunoglobulin production. Flow cytometric analysis of blood lymphocyte subpopulations rev...
Russo D, Bombardi C, Grandis A, Furness JB, Spadari A, Bernardini C, Chiocchetti R.The distribution and chemical phenotypes of sympathetic and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons innervating the equine ileocecal junction (ICJ) were studied by combining retrograde tracing and immunohistochemistry. Immunoreactivity (IR) for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), substance P (SP), and neuropeptide Y (NPY) was investigated. Sympathetic neurons projecting to the ICJ were distributed within the celiac (CG), cranial mesenteric (CranMG), and caudal mesenteric (CaudMG) ganglia, as well ...
Warner S, Hartley CA, Stevenson RA, Ficorilli N, Varrasso A, Studdert MJ, Crabb BS.Equine rhinitis A virus (ERAV) is a respiratory pathogen of horses and is classified as an Aphthovirus, the only non-Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) member of this genus. In FMDV, virion protein 1 (VP1) is a major target of protective antibodies and is responsible for viral attachment to permissive cells via an RGD motif located in a distal surface loop. Although both viruses share considerable sequence identity, ERAV VP1 does not contain an RGD motif. To investigate antibody and receptor-binding properties of ERAV VP1, we have expressed full-length ERAV VP1 in Escherichia coli as a glutat...
Gibson KE, Pastenkos G, Moesta S, Rikihisa Y.Neorickettsia risticii is the Gram-negative, obligate, and intracellular bacterial pathogen responsible for Potomac horse fever (PHF): an important acute systemic disease of horses. N. risticii surface proteins, critical for immune recognition, have not been thoroughly characterized. In this paper, we identified the 51-kDa antigen (P51) as a major surface-exposed outer membrane protein of older and contemporary strains of N. risticii through mass spectrometry of streptavidin-purified biotinylated surface-labeled proteins. Western blot analysis of sera from naturally-infected horses demonstrate...
Bisgaard M, Piechulla K, Ying YT, Frederiksen W, Mannheim W.Evidence was obtained to indicate that equine strains of organisms previously described as Actinobacillus suis or hemolytic variants of Actinobacillus equuli might constitute a separate group of organisms provisionally designated taxon 11. Four biovars were noticed within taxon 11. Selected DNA:DNA hybridizations support the classification of the mannitol positive biovar 2 of taxon 11 distinct from porcine A. suis. The final taxonomical position of taxon 11, however, has to await more detailed genetic studies including all biovars of taxon 11. A species name has not been suggested for the same...
Montgomery JB, Wichtel JJ, Wichtel MG, McNiven MA, McClure JT, Markham F, Horohov DW.The effects of selenium (Se) supplementation and source on equine immune function have not been extensively studied. This study examined the effects of oral Se supplementation and Se source on aspects of innate and adaptive immunity in horses. Fifteen horses were assigned to 1 of 3 groups (5 horses/group): control, inorganic Se (sodium selenite), organic Se (Se yeast). Immune function tests performed included: lymphocyte proliferation in response to mitogen concanavalin A, neutrophil phagocytosis, antibody production after rabies vaccination, relative cytokine gene expression in stimulated lym...
Mahmoud MS, Kandil OM, Abu El-Ezz NT, Hendawy SHM, Elsawy BSM, Knowles DP, Bastos RG, Kappmeyer LS, Laughery JM, Alzan HF, Suarez CE.The tick-borne intra-erythrocytic apicomplexan Babesia caballi is one of the etiological agents of equine babesiosis, an economically important disease of equids in most tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Discovering candidate antigens for improved diagnostic tools and vaccines remains needed for controlling equine babesiosis. This study describes the B. caballi sbp4 (Bcsbp4) gene and protein (BcSBP4) and analyzes its antigenicity in infected equids. Methods: BLAST searches of an uncurated B. caballi assembly genome using the B. bovis SBP4 as a query were carried out, followed by PCR...
Castillo-Olivares J, Wieringa R, Bakonyi T, de Vries AA, Davis-Poynter NJ, Rottier PJ.Equine arteritis virus (EAV) is an enveloped plus-strand RNA virus of the family Arteriviridae (order Nidovirales) that causes respiratory and reproductive disease in equids. Protective, virus-neutralizing antibodies (VNAb) elicited by infection are directed predominantly against an immunodominant region in the membrane-proximal domain of the viral envelope glycoprotein G(L), allowing recently the establishment of a sensitive peptide enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) based on this particular domain (J. Nugent et al., J. Virol. Methods 90:167-183, 2000). By using an infectious cDNA we h...
Bruhn O, Regenhard P, Michalek M, Paul S, Gelhaus C, Jung S, Thaller G, Podschun R, Leippe M, Grötzinger J, Kalm E.Defensins are a predominant class of antimicrobial peptides, which act as endogenous antibiotics. Defensins are classified into three distinct sub-families: theta-, beta-, and alpha-defensins. Synthesis of alpha-defensin has been confirmed only in primates and glires to date and is presumably unique for a few tissues, including neutrophils and Paneth cells of the small intestine. Antimicrobial activities of these peptides were shown against a wide variety of microbes including bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoan parasites. In the present study, we report the characterization of the equine a...
Sugahara Y, Matsumura T, Kono Y, Honda E, Kida H, Okazaki K.Heparin extensively inhibited infection of MDBK cells by equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) strains adapted to bovine cells or hamsters, while the reagent merely reduced infectivity of strains passaged only in equine cells. The gC of two strains adapted to non-equine cells seemed to have higher affinity for heparin, although the reagent bound to both the gC and gB of all strains tested. Amino acid substitutions of the gC of the EHV-1 strains adapted to non-equine cells converged on the hydrophilic regions, amino acid residues 92 to 175, resulting in the glycoprotein becoming more cationic. These res...
Brandt S, Schoster A, Tober R, Kainzbauer C, Burgstaller JP, Haralambus R, Steinborn R, Hinterhofer C, Stanek C.Equine hoof canker is a chronic proliferative pododermatitis of as yet unknown aetiology. Like equine sarcoid disease, canker is a therapy-resistant disorder characterised by hyperkeratosis, acanthosis and a marked tendency to recur. Objective: There is an association of sarcoid-inducing bovine papillomaviruses of types 1 and 2 (BPV-1, BPV-2) with hoof canker disease. Methods: Using PCR-based techniques, we assessed canker tissue, intact skin and/or peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of 25 canker-affected horses for the presence of sarcoid-associated BPV-1 and -2. Results: Conventional...
Franck T, Kohnen S, Deby-Dupont G, Grulke S, Deby C, Serteyn D.An original method called SIEFED (specific immunological extraction followed by enzymatic detection) was developed for the specific detection of the activity of equine myeloperoxidase (MPO). The method consists of the extraction of MPO from aqueous solutions by immobilized anti-MPO antibodies followed by washing (to eliminate proteins and interfering molecules) and measurement of MPO activity using a detection system containing a fluorogenic substrate, hydrogen peroxide, and nitrite as reaction enhancer. The SIEFED technique was applied to study active MPO in horse biological fluids and the ef...
Edington N, Bridges CG, Griffiths L.When 23 ponies were infected with equid herpesvirus-1 or -4 (EHV-1 or EHV-4), nasal shedding of interferon (IFN) correlated closely with the duration of viral excretion. Equine interferon (EqIFN) was detected in the serum only from animals infected with the EHV-1 virus, and here high levels correlated with clinical symptoms of locomotor disorder and indicated a poor prognosis. Low levels of IFN were detected in explanted mononuclear cells from ponies infected with either virus.
McGuire TC, Crawford TB.Immunoglobulin A (IgA) was demonstrated in equine serum and secretions. This immunoglobulin had a molecular weight extending from 150,000 to 700,000 and reacted with specific antihuman alpha-chain antiserum. Antigenic determinants specific for secretory IgA were demonstrated and found to be absent on serum IgA. Antigen binding activity was detected in IgA from tears. Purified IgA was antigenically distinct from equine IgG, IgM, IgG(T), and aggregating immunoglobulin. Quantitative studies demonstrated that IgA was the predominant immunoglobulin in tears and milk but not in colostrum. The electr...
Bai B, Wang XF, Zhang M, Na L, Zhang X, Zhang H, Yang Z, Wang X.Tetherin is an interferon-inducible type II transmembrane glycoprotein which inhibits the release of viruses, including retroviruses, through a "physical tethering" model. However, the role that the glycosylation of tetherin plays in its antiviral activity remains controversial. In this study, we found that mutation of N-glycosylation sites resulted in an attenuation of the antiviral activity of equine tetherin (eqTHN), as well as a reduction in the expression of eqTHN at the plasma membrane (PM). In addition, eqTHN N-glycosylation mutants colocalize obviously with ER, CD63, LAMP1 and endosome...
Quintana AM, Hussey SB, Burr EC, Pecoraro HL, Annis KM, Rao S, Landolt GA.To evaluate whether an equine-derived canine H3N8 influenza A virus was capable of infecting and transmitting disease to ponies. Methods: 20 influenza virus-seronegative 12- to 24-month-old ponies. Methods: 5 ponies were inoculated via aerosol exposure with 10(7) TCID(50) of A/Canine/Wyoming/86033/07 virus (Ca/WY)/pony. A second group of 5 ponies (positive control group) was inoculated via aerosol exposure with a contemporary A/Eq/Colorado/10/07 virus (Eq/CO), and 4 sham-inoculated ponies served as a negative control group. To evaluate the potential for virus transmission, ponies (3/inoculatio...
Goodwin D, Gennari SM, Howe DK, Dubey JP, Zajac AM, Lindsay DS.Encephalitozoon cuniculi has been associated with natural cases of abortion and stillbirth in horses. However, little is known about the prevalence of this parasite in horses. We examined sera from 559 horses from Brazil for antibodies to E. cuniculi using the indirect immunofluorescent antibody (IFA) test and the direct agglutination test (DAT). We found that 79 (14.1%) were positive in the IFA test and 70 (12.5%) were positive in the DAT. Compared to the IFA as the "gold standard" the sensitivity of the DAG was 94.0% and the specificity was 96.1%. Our study indicates that horses in Brazil ar...
Lanz S, Gerber V, Marti E, Rettmer H, Klukowska-Rötzler J, Gottstein B, Matthews JB, Pirie S, Hamza E.Equine recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) is an inflammatory, obstructive airway disease induced by exposure of susceptible horses to inhaled organic dust particles. The immunological process underlying RAO is still unclear. Previous studies have shown that RAO is linked to the Interleukin-4 receptor (IL-4R) gene in one Warmblood family (F1), but not in another (F2). It has also been shown that in F1, but not in F2, RAO is associated with resistance against parasites, suggesting that this association may have an immuno-genetic basis. Therefore, we hypothesized that the T helper (h)1/Th2/regula...
Ellison SP, Omara-Opyene AL, Yowell CA, Marsh AE, Dame JB.A gene encoding a major 29 kDa surface antigen from Sarcocystis neurona, the primary causative agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM), was cloned, sequenced, and expressed as a recombinant protein. A cDNA library was prepared in the expression vector lambda ZAP from polyA+mRNA isolated from S. neurona merozoites cultivated in vitro. Random sequencing of 96 clones identified a clone of an abundant transcript having a translated amino acid sequence with 30% identity to the 31-kDa surface antigen of Sarcocystis muris cyst merozoites. Southern blot analysis indicated that the correspond...
Daly J, Daas A, Behr-Gross ME.In 2004, the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) Expert Surveillance Panel on equine influenza recommended that the American lineage component (H3N8) of equine influenza vaccines (A/eq/Newmarket/1/93-like) be updated to an A/eq/South Africa/4/03-like virus. As a consequence the common European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) - OIE reference for equine influenza subtype 2 American-like antiserum had to be complemented by an antiserum raised in horses against an A/eq/South Africa/4/03 strain. An international collaborative study run by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines (EDQM) ...
Grünig G, Triplett L, Canady LK, Allen WR, Antczak DF.Invading trophoblasts form endometrial cups in the endometrium of the pregnant mare. In the present study we characterized the maternal leucocyte response to endometrial cups from their formation to their regression. The maternal leucocyte response was correlated with the stages of trophoblast development. (1) Aggregates of CD4+ and CD8+ cells were present between the migrating and differentiating endometrial cup trophoblasts and surrounding the forming endometrial cups. (2) Numbers of CD4+ cells within the mature endometrial cups were much reduced. At the periphery of the endometrial cups CD4...
Jin S, Chen C, Montelaro RC.We have previously reported that serial truncation of the Gag p9 protein of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) revealed a progressive loss in replication phenotypes in transfected cells, such that a proviral mutant (E32) expressing the N-terminal 31 amino acids of p9 produced infectious virus particles similarly to parental provirus, while a proviral mutant (K30) with two fewer amino acids produced replication-defective virus particles, despite containing apparently normal levels of processed Gag and Pol proteins (C. Chen, F. Li, and R. C. Montelaro, J. Virol. 75:9762-9760, 2001). Based on ...
Niedzwiedz A, Jaworski Z, Kubiak K.Equine recurrent airway obstruction (RAO), also known as heaves, is one of the most common respiratory problems in older horses. When RAO-affected horses stay pastured or in a dust-free environment for a prolonged time, clinical signs as well as airway inflammation wane. A number of environmental, immunologic, infectious, and genetic factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of RAO, and the immunologic basis of this disease is still poorly understood. Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the concentrations of allergen-specific IgE in the serum of horses suffering from R...
Chirnside ED, Francis PM, Mumford JA.A series of recombinant fusion proteins derived from equine arteritis virus (EAV) open reading frame (ORF) 7 have been used to define the immunoreactive region of the viral nucleocapsid (N) protein. Reactivities of recombinant N fusion proteins with post-infection equine sera in immunoblots and ELISAs indicate that the major nucleocapsid protein epitope is located within amino acid residues 1-69. In ELISAs two recombinant nucleocapsid fusion proteins containing residues 1-69 (rN1-69) and 1-28 (rN1-28) discriminated between pre- and post-infection, and pre- and post-vaccination serum samples. A...
Marti E, Wang X, Jambari NN, Rhyner C, Olzhausen J, Pérez-Barea JJ, Figueredo GP, Alcocer MJ.Insect bite hypersensitivity (IBH) is a seasonal recurrent skin allergy of horses caused by IgE-mediated reactions to allergens present in the saliva of biting insects of the genus Culicoides, and possibly also Simulium and Stomoxys species. In this work we show that protein microarrays containing complex extracts and pure proteins, including recombinant Culicoides allergens, can be used as a powerful technique for the diagnosis of IBH. Besides the obvious advantages such as general profiling and use of few microliters of samples, this microarray technique permits automation and allows the gen...
