Kinematics in horses refers to the study of motion without considering the forces that cause it. This field involves analyzing the movement patterns of horses, including gait, stride length, joint angles, and limb trajectories. Kinematic analysis is performed using technologies such as high-speed cameras and motion capture systems to collect data on equine locomotion. This information is valuable for understanding normal and abnormal movement, assessing performance, and identifying potential lameness or injury. The study of kinematics provides insights into the biomechanics of horse movement and contributes to advancements in training, rehabilitation, and veterinary care. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the methodologies, findings, and applications of kinematic analysis in equine science.
Loosley H, Rehbein LS, Lima EMM, Blake R.Elevated pressures beneath training rollers during the Pessoa training aid (PTA) use have been reported, particularly over the thoracic region, which may contribute to back discomfort. Objective: To investigate the effect of different pads on pressures and forces beneath a training roller during lunging with a PTA. Methods: Six clinically sound horses (13.8 ± 5.2 years) were lunged on a 16-m circle in trot and canter using a randomised crossover design under three conditions: no padding (Pad 1), a folded cotton saddle cloth (Pad 2), and a purpose-made roller foam pad (Pad 3). Kinetic data wer...
Clayton HM.The horse's head and neck account for about 10% of body weight, and this, combined with the fact that they are cantilevered in front of the trunk, produces considerable leverage around the joints at the base of the neck. During locomotion, the neck is moved primarily by gravitational and inertial forces controlled by eccentric-concentric cycles of contraction in the topline muscles assisted by energy-saving, stretch-recoil cycles in the nuchal ligament. The functional part of the nuchal ligament is the caudal funicular region and the lamellae to the second cervical vertebra that acts as the po...
Vargas J.To describe the application of water treadmill exercise for equine fitness and/or rehabilitation in a scientific and clinically reasonable manner. Unassigned: Horses owned by Spy Coast Farm were used for video content. Unassigned: A literature review was performed and compiled in this brief video to provide veterinarians with a comprehensive, evidence-based guide for implementing water treadmill exercise within fitness and rehabilitation programs. Unassigned: Equine water treadmill exercise is an aerobic modality that increases distal limb flexion and range of motion, with no reported adverse ...
Key K, Kirkegaard J, Berg K, Andresen KR, Skov Hansen S.A handheld smartphone-based computer vision algorithm (RealHorse® [RH]) offers accessible alternatives for equine gait analysis but requires validation against a gold-standard three-dimensional multicamera optical motion capture system (Qualisys® [QS]). Objective: To evaluate the accuracy and precision of RH in measuring vertical displacement signals (VDS) at the eye, withers, back and croup in horses trotting on a straight line and on a circle. Methods: Cross-sectional comparative validation study of a markerless computer vision algorithm. Methods: Fifty-nine horses were recorded while trot...
Khalil WA, Sharf MI, Derbala MK, Hassan MAE, Abdelnour SA, El-Harairy MA.This study aims to investigate the cryoprotective effect of Omega-3 nano-emulsion (Omega-3 NE) on stallion sperm quality, kinematic parameters, acrosome status, subcellular ultrastructure, oxidative/antioxidant markers, and semen microbiota. Forty ejaculates were collected, extended, and cryopreserved from 5 fertile Pure Egyptian stallions (Equus caballus). The ejaculates were divided into five groups: a control group (without additive) and four groups supplemented with 25, 50, 100, and 200 μg of Omega-3 NE/mL. The Omega-3 NE exhibited an average particle size of 51-146 nm, a PDI of 0.58,...
Key K, Berg K, Kirkegaard J, Andresen KR, Hansen SS.Equine lameness diagnosis largely relies on subjective visual assessments, which can be biased. Although marker-based methods, force plates and inertial measurement units (IMUs) provide objective measurements, they require specialized setups. Vision-based algorithms offer a portable, markerless alternative, but their accuracy needs thorough testing. Objective: To evaluate a custom vision-based algorithm for estimating the groundline across multiple camera angles, including handheld use in horses trotting on a treadmill. Methods: Experimental comparative study. Methods: Eight Standardbred trott...
Becerro-Rey L, Martín-Cano FE, Silva-Rodríguez A, Ortega-Ferrusola C, da Silva-Álvarez E, Zabalo-Palomo C, Gil C, Peña FJ.Commercial extenders for equine semen typically contain high glucose concentrations; however, recent research indicates that these supraphysiological concentrations of glucose may be detrimental. Spermatozoa lack translational activity and depend on post-translational protein modifications for their regulation. Supraphysiological glucose concentrations are known to modify cell regulation, and we hypothesize that post-translational modification deregulation associated with supraphysiological glucose concentrations occurs in spermatozoa extended in high glucose media; and increasing the concentr...
Jonkhart M, Serra Bragança FM, Smit IH, Brommer H, Suskens JJM.Flexion tests are commonly used in equine locomotion examinations to identify underlying locomotor issues, yet their neuromuscular effects remain poorly understood. Response variability raises concerns about their clinical value in lameness assessments and pre-purchase evaluations. Objective: Primarily, to investigate the effect of full-limb flexion tests on static (flexed position) and dynamic (subsequent trot-up) muscle activity. Secondarily, to assess their effect on locomotion asymmetry during trotting. Methods: In vivo experiments. Methods: Sixteen warmblood horses were randomly assigned ...
Journal of biomechanicsNovember 16, 2025
Volume 194 113078 doi: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2025.113078
Opolz MD, Sipes GC, Moshage SG, McCoy AM, Kersh ME.Equine models are useful in biomechanics research due to their similarity in musculoskeletal tissue to humans, their athletic nature, and rapid skeletal development which permits ontogenetic studies. However, a continuing challenge in musculoskeletal models for large animal biomechanics is measuring the ground reaction force (GRF) during locomotion and therefore few reports of biomechanical measures such as joint torques. Here we evaluate two statistical approaches for estimating forelimb ground reaction forces in foals (n = 3). Longitudinal motion capture, GRF, and subject mass data during ...
Aarts RM, Smit IH, Ferraz GC, Rhodin M, Serra Braganca FM, Hernlund E.Assessment of equine metabolic and locomotory responses to quantified levels of physical exercise is needed to support the creation of tailored protocols for optimal training adaptation. The locomotory response to exercise in horses is not fully understood. Objective: To investigate the effect of a standardised exercise test (SET) on upper-body and limb kinematics and stride-to-stride variability in Standardbred Warmblood trotters. Methods: Experimental repeated-measures field study. Methods: Thirteen Standardbred trotters, equipped with nine inertial measurement units (IMUs), performed an inc...
Key K, Berg K, Kirkegaard J, Andresen KR, Skov Hansen S.Computer vision-based algorithms offer accessible alternatives for equine gait analysis but require thorough assessment under diverse conditions. Objective: To evaluate a proprietary vision-based algorithm's reliability in measuring vertical displacement signals (VDS) at the eye, withers and croup, alongside groundline estimation, for horses trotting on straight lines and circles under field conditions. Methods: Cross-sectional comparative study evaluating agreement, variability and reliability of a markerless computer vision algorithm. Methods: We obtained 67 handheld iPhone recordings from 3...
St George L, Nankervis K, Walker V, Maddock C, Robinson A, Sinclair J, Hobbs SJ.Despite growing evidence on the adaptive movement patterns that horses adopt during water treadmill (WT) exercise, underlying adaptations in muscle activity remain uninvestigated. This feasibility study aimed to develop a method for the synchronous measurement of muscle activity and movement of horses during WT exercise. Combined surface electromyography (sEMG) (2000 Hz) from selected hindlimb (biceps femoris, gluteus medius, tensor fasciae latae) and epaxial (longissimus dorsi) muscles, and three-dimensional kinematic (200 Hz) data from the back and pelvis of one (n = 1) horse were collected ...
Meistro F, Ralletti MV, Rinnovati R, Spadari A.Subjective lameness evaluation during lungeing is routinely performed in equine practice, but its consistency remains limited, especially in cases of mild or complex asymmetry. Objective: This study aimed to assess the agreement between subjective gait evaluations and a markerless AI-based gait analysis system (OAI-MS) in traditional racehorses during lungeing. Intra- and inter-observer agreement of subjective evaluations was also investigated. Methods: 24 traditional racehorses were assessed during routine pre-race inspections (T0) while trotting on a soft surface. Two experienced equine clin...
Larriva-González F, Erráez-Guaicha JE, Torres-Ordóñez KE, Duma M, Larriva-Salazar S, Galarza DA.This study evaluated the cryoresistance of stallion sperm frozen by ultra-rapid (UR) methods using microspheres and straws or by the conventionally-slow (CS) method. Sixteen ejaculates from four stallions were each divided into three aliquots according to the freezing method: UR freezing in 30-μL spheres (UR-Spheres) by direct immersion in liquid nitrogen (LN); UR freezing in 0.25-mL straws (UR-Straws) by direct horizontal submersion in LN; and CS freezing in LN vapors. Ultra-rapid freezing medium included 100 mM trehalose +1 % BSA, and the CS freezing medium contained 5 % dimethylformamid...
Staiger EA, Pereira de Toledo A, Rizzato Paschoal V, Patterson Rosa L.Horse gaits are a trait highly selected and prized in diverse breeds. Meanwhile, gait classification relies mostly on subjective visual observations by evaluators. Noninvasive equipment able to track locomotion in horses and output quantitative gait parameters is not only helpful in evaluating locomotion but also in designating gait types and its variations. Equine locomotion pattern designation based solely on observer evaluation can be subjective; therefore, utilizing tools that provide quantitative results and track individual limb movements, especially during intermediate-speed gaits, can ...
Shaffer SK, Medjaouri O, Swenson B, Eliason T, Nicolella DP.The ability to quantify equine kinematics is essential for clinical evaluation, research, and performance feedback. However, current methods are challenging to implement. This study presents a motion capture methodology for horses, where three-dimensional, full-body kinematics are calculated without instrumentation on the animal, offering a more scalable and labor-efficient approach when compared with traditional techniques. Kinematic trajectories are calculated from multi-camera video data. First, a neural network identifies skeletal landmarks (markers) in each camera view and the 3D location...
Bosch K, Zsoldos RR, Hartig A, Licka T.The influence of soft tissue structures, including ligaments spanning one or more intervertebral junctions and the nuchal ligament, on motion of the equine cervical joints remains unclear. The present study addressed this using four post-mortem horse specimens extending from head to withers with all ligaments intact. Three-dimensional kinematics was obtained from markers on the head and bone-anchored markers on each cervical and the first thoracic vertebra during rotation, lateral bending, flexion and extension of the whole head, and neck segment. Yaw, pitch, and roll angles in 8 cervical join...
Hopkins E, Whitrod S, Marlin D, Blake R.Noseband tightness has received increasing attention within equitation science, however, there is little research into how this effects equine behaviour or performance. Objective: 1) determine the peak pressures under noseband in vivo at three different tightness; 2) assess limb and back kinematics at different noseband tightness. Methods: Noseband tightness (n = 8 horses) was set using an International Society for Equine Science (ISES) taper gauge with the three settings being; "two fingers (2F)", "one finger (1F)" and "zero fingers (0F)". Peak pressure under noseband was determined using pre...
Al-Kass Z, Morrell JM, Ntallaris T.Sperm quality is adversely affected by cryopreservation due to the increased production of reactive oxygen species, which affects the integrity of sperm membranes, motility, and DNA fragmentation. Three methods for removing seminal plasma, washing (centrifuging extended semen at 800× for 10 min) and Single Layer Centrifugation with high or low density Equicoll, were used to prepare 29 ejaculates from ten stallions for freezing. Sperm quality parameters (kinematics, plasma membrane integrity, superoxide and hydrogen peroxide production, mitochondrial membrane potential, and DNA fragmentation)...
Zupan Šemrov M, Přibylová L, Gobbo E.Equine locomotion emerges from a dynamic interplay between morphology, biomechanics, and functional demands. This study examines the relationship between morphological measurements and gait kinematics in Lipizzan horses, a breed renowned for its diverse work tasks and standardized environmental conditions. These horses offer a unique opportunity to explore task-specific adaptations in biomechanics, with significant implications for breeding strategies and welfare practices. Unassigned: The study involved 71 healthy Lipizzan horses that were housed at the Lipica stud farm and performed various ...
de Fátima Coccia V, Rodacki ALF, Pavão SL.Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder affecting sensorimotor systems, potentially disturbing postural control and stability. Considering the treatment options for these children, hippotherapy (HPOT) is based on horse movements to provide sensory stimuli and motor challenges, potentially contributing to improvements in postural control. Objective: To investigate the immediate effects of a 30-min HPOT session on the center of pressure (CoP) displacement of children with ASD (ASDG) and children with typical development (TDG). Methods: 120 children (60 ASDG; 60 TD...
Duma LA, Begonia MT, Miller B, Jung C, Wood M, Duma BG, Rowson S.The current equestrian helmet standards set minimal requirements for passing helmets, highlighting the need for a rating system that differentiates helmets based on their impact performance. This study's objectives were to compare equestrian helmet impact response kinematics between linear-driven and oblique impact conditions and then to evaluate the effect of incorporating oblique drop tests into a previously established equestrian helmet rating system, Equestrian STAR. Methods: Oblique drop tests were conducted with 45 equestrian helmet models at two impact locations, front boss and rear bos...
Cameron-Whytock H, Divall H, Lewis M, Apps C.The study hypothesised that a markerless motion capture system can provide kinematic data comparable to a traditional marker-based system for riders mounted on a horse. The objective was to assess the markerless system's accuracy by directly comparing joint and segment angle measurements taken during walking and trotting with those obtained from a marker-based system. Ten healthy adult participants performed five dynamic trials during walking and trotting. A twelve-camera marker-based system and eight-camera 2D video-based system were synchronised. Three-dimensional hip, knee, shoulder and elb...
Legg KA, Cochrane DJ, Gee EK, Chin YY, Rogers CW.Thoroughbred race-riding requires jockeys to attenuate horse movement and maintain postural stability whilst galloping at high speeds. This study aimed to investigate the head movement of jockeys in relation to race-riding experience. Accelerometer and heart rate data were collected from twelve apprentice and two senior jockeys during 85 exercise rides and 82 trial rides. Mean head displacements were determined for each jockey by double integrating the filtered acceleration data. A mixed effect multivariable linear regression model was used to investigate the relationship between jockey experi...
de Chiara M, Montano C, De Matteis A, Guidi L, Buono F, Auletta L, Del Prete C, Pasolini MP.Subjective evaluation of gait by official endurance veterinarians (OEVs) is used to determine 'fitness-to-compete' in horses participating in endurance competitions. Objective gait analysis systems could aid in quick and verifiable judgements. Objective: To assess the agreement between objective analysis of head and pelvis vertical movement asymmetry performed with a markerless artificial intelligence motion tracking system (AI-MTS) and subjective lameness assessment performed by an accredited FEI OEV to judge horse gaits. Methods: Cross-sectional. Methods: During three endurance competitions,...
Cetintav B, Yalcin A.Understanding equine behavior through advanced monitoring technologies is crucial for improving animal welfare, optimizing training strategies, and enabling early detection of health or stress-related issues. This study integrates wearable sensor data with Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) techniques, particularly SHAP (Shapley Additive Explanations), to enhance interpretability in equine behavior classification. The data used in this study were sourced from an open-source dataset, ensuring transparency and reproducibility. Orginally, data were collected from 18 horses using sensor dev...
Schampheleer J, Eerdekens A, Joseph W, Martens L, Deruyck M.Automatic horse gait classification offers insights into training intensity, but directsensor attachment to horses raises concerns about discomfort, behavioral disruption, andentanglement risks. To address this, our study leverages rider-centric accelerometers formovement classification. The position of a sensor, sampling frequency, and window size ofsegmented signal data have a major impact on classification accuracy in activity recognition.Yet, there are no studies that have evaluated the effect of all these factors simultaneouslyusing accelerometer data from four distinct rider locations (t...
Brito LFC.Semen analysis is an important laboratory diagnostic test for stallions. Evaluation of sperm motility is integral to basic semen analysis and results are important for breeding management and clinical practice. Computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA) allows objective sperm motility evaluation and increases analytical precision. The objective of the present study was to validate a portable CASA system (AndroScope). Fresh/cooled semen samples (33 ejaculates, 18 stallions) and frozen semen (40 ejaculates and one epididymal flush, 27 stallions) were evaluated using the AndroScope and the IVOS II C...
Aoun R, Ogunmola Z, Musso A, Taguchi T, Takawira C, Lopez MJ.The shift in vertical forces on the equine hoof surface by heart-bar, egg-bar, and wooden clog shoes can significantly impact gait kinetics. Hypotheses tested in this study were that vertical, braking, and propulsion peak force (PF) and impulse (IMP) are different while shod with heart-bar, egg-bar, open-heel, and wooden clog shoes, or while unshod, and the resultant ground reaction force vector (GRF YZ ) has the longest duration of cranial angulation with open-heel shoes followed by unshod, then egg-bar and heart-bar shoes, and the shortest with wooden clog shoes. Forelimb GRFs were recorded ...
Pezzanite LM, Nelson BB, Downey AC, Gadomski B, McGilvray K, Baer K, Kappel SM, Nout-Lomas Y, Seim HB, Easley JT.To determine the biomechanical properties of pedicle screw and rod (PSR) constructs alone and with an interbody fusion device (PSRIFD) for equine ventral cervical vertebral stabilization. Methods: Cadaveric ex vivo biomechanical analysis. Methods: A total of 14 (n = 14) adult equine cervical vertebral columns. Methods: Cervical vertebral columns were stabilized by PSR alone (n = 6) or PSRIFD (n = 5). Three columns were left unaltered as controls. Non-destructive biomechanical testing showed the kinematic range of motion (ROM), compliance, and neutral zone of each spinal unit in the...
Biewener AA.The stresses acting in muscle-tendon units and ligaments of the forelimb and hindlimb of horses were determined over a range of speed and gait based on recordings of ground reaction forces and limb kinematics. Maximum stresses of 40-50 MPa were calculated to act in several of the principal forelimb (superficial digital flexor (SDF), deep digital flexor (DDF), ulnaris lateralis (UL) and flexor carpi ulnaris/radialis (FCU/R)) and hindlimb tendons (plantaris, DDF) at the fastest galloping speeds recorded (up to 7.4 m s-1). Smaller stresses were found for the gastrocnemius (GAST) tendon (30 MPa) a...
Witte TH, Knill K, Wilson AM.Measurement of peak vertical ground reaction force (GRFz) from multiple limbs simultaneously during high-speed, over-ground locomotion would enhance our understanding of the locomotor mechanics of cursorial animals. Here, we evaluate the accuracy of predicting peak GRFz from duty factor (the proportion of the stride for which the limb is in contact with the ground). Foot-mounted uniaxial accelerometers, combined with UHF FM telemetry, are shown to be practical and accurate for the field measurement of stride timing variables, including duty factor. Direct comparison with the force plate produc...
Pfau T, Witte TH, Wilson AM.Biomechanical studies often employ optical motion capture systems for the determination of the position of an object in a room-based coordinate system. This is not ideal for many types of study in locomotion since only a few strides may be collected per ;trial', and outdoor experiments are difficult with some systems. Here, we report and evaluate a novel approach that enables the user to determine linear displacements of a proprietary orientation sensor during cyclical movement. This makes experiments outside the constraints of the laboratory possible, for example to measure mechanical energy ...
Minetti AE, ArdigO LP, Reinach E, Saibene F.Three-dimensional motion capture and metabolic assessment were performed on four standardbred horses while walking, trotting and galloping on a motorized treadmill at different speeds. The mechanical work was partitioned into the internal work (W(INT)), due to the speed changes of body segments with respect to the body centre of mass, and the external work (W(EXT)), due to the position and speed changes of the body centre of mass with respect to the environment. The estimated total mechanical work (W(TOT)=W(INT)+W(EXT)) increased with speed, while metabolic work (C) remained rather constant. A...
Buchner HH, Savelberg HH, Schamhardt HC, Barneveld A.The kinematic patterns of head and trunk were studied in horses during induced supporting limb lameness to understand the mechanisms horses use to compensate for lameness and to evaluate different symmetry indices for their significance as lameness indicators. Using the locomotion analysis system CODA-3 the kinematics of 11 clinically nonlame Dutch Warmblood horses were recorded while walking (1.6 m/s) and trotting (3.5 m/s) on a treadmill. A transient lameness model, evoking pressure induced pain on the hoof sole, was used to induce 3 degrees of fore- and hindlimb lameness. Peak vertical disp...
Bosch S, Serra Bragança F, Marin-Perianu M, Marin-Perianu R, van der Zwaag BJ, Voskamp J, Back W, van Weeren R, Havinga P.In this paper, we describe and validate the EquiMoves system, which aims to support equine veterinarians in assessing lameness and gait performance in horses. The system works by capturing horse motion from up to eight synchronized wireless inertial measurement units. It can be used in various equine gait modes, and analyzes both upper-body and limb movements. The validation against an optical motion capture system is based on a Bland-Altman analysis that illustrates the agreement between the two systems. The sagittal kinematic results (protraction, retraction, and sagittal range of motion) sh...
Robilliard JJ, Pfau T, Wilson AM.Although a large number of foot-fall sequences are possible in quadrupeds, few sequences are routinely used. The aim of this paper is to characterise, by foot-fall pattern, the gaits used by horses and develop a novel technique to classify symmetric and asymmetric gaits using one common criterion. To achieve this speed and relative foot-fall, timings of all four limbs of eight Icelandic horses were measured using accelerometers. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was performed to find criteria that are optimal for discriminating between the different gaits. This also allowed us to evaluate whe...
Reilly SM, McElroy EJ, Biknevicius AR.A reanalysis of locomotor data from functional, energetic, mechanical and ecological perspectives reveals that limb posture has major effects on limb biomechanics, energy-saving mechanisms and the costs of locomotion. Regressions of data coded by posture (crouched vs. erect) reveal nonlinear patterns in metabolic cost, limb muscle mass, effective mechanical advantage, and stride characteristics. In small crouched animals energy savings from spring and pendular mechanisms are inconsequential and thus the metabolic cost of locomotion is driven by muscle activation costs. Stride frequency appears...
McMahon TA.Many parameters of gait and performance, including stride frequency, stride length, maximum speed, and rate of O2 uptake are experimentally found to be power-law functions of body weight in running quadrupeds. All of these parameters are reasonably easy to measure except maximum speed, where the question arises whether one means top sprinting speed or top speed for sustained running. Moreover, differences in training and motivation make comparisons of top speed difficult. The problem is circumvented by comparing animals running at the transition between trotting and galloping, a physiologicall...
Rhodin M, Persson-Sjodin E, Egenvall A, Serra Bragança FM, Pfau T, Roepstorff L, Weishaupt MA, Thomsen MH, van Weeren PR, Hernlund E.The main criteria for lameness assessment in horses are head movement for forelimb lameness and pelvic movement for hindlimb lameness. However, compensatory head nod in horses with primary hindlimb lameness is a well-known phenomenon. This compensatory head nod movement can be easily misinterpreted as a sign of primary ipsilateral forelimb lameness. Therefore, discriminating compensatory asymmetries from primary directly pain-related movement asymmetries is a prerequisite for successful lameness assessment. Objective: To investigate the association between head, withers and pelvis movement asy...
Bertram JE, Gutmann A.Mammals use two distinct gallops referred to as the transverse (where landing and take-off are contralateral) and rotary (where landing and take-off are ipsilateral). These two gallops are used by a variety of mammals, but the transverse gallop is epitomized by the horse and the rotary gallop by the cheetah. In this paper, we argue that the fundamental difference between these gaits is determined by which set of limbs, fore or hind, initiates the transition of the centre of mass from a downward-forward to upward-forward trajectory that occurs between the main ballistic (non-contact) portions o...
Witte TH, Hirst CV, Wilson AM.Stride duration, stance duration and protraction duration are key variables when describing the gaits of terrestrial animals. Together, they determine the duty factor (the fraction of the stride for which the limb maintains contact with the ground surface), from which the peak vertical force can be estimated. When an animal changes speed, these variables change at different proportions. Limited measurements of these variables and predictions of peak limb force have been undertaken for large mammals performing high-speed over-ground exercise. This study set out to make such measurements, employ...
Minetti AE.By refining a previously published model, a simple equation for the estimation of the mechanical internal work during locomotion is presented. The only input variables are the progression speed, the stride frequency and the duty factor, i.e. the fraction of the stride duration at which a foot is in contact with the ground. The inclusion of this last variable, easily measurable, allows to obtain a single equation for both walking and running. The model predictions have been compared with the mechanical internal work experimentally obtained on humans in several conditions: speeds (range 0.8-3.3 ...
Hardeman AM, Serra Bragança FM, Swagemakers JH, van Weeren PR, Roepstorff L.Objective lameness assessment is gaining more importance in a clinical setting, necessitating availability of reference values. Objective: To investigate the between -path, -trial and -day variation, between and within horses, in the locomotion symmetry of horses in regular use that are perceived sound. Methods: Observational study with replicated measurement sessions. Methods: Twelve owner-sound horses were trotted on the straight line and on the lunge. Kinematic data were collected from these horses using 3D optical motion capture. Examinations were repeated on 12 occasions over the study wh...
Warner SM, Koch TO, Pfau T.Assessing back movement is an important part of clinical examination in the horse and objective assessment tools allow for evaluating success of treatment. Objective: Accuracy and consistency of inertial sensor measurements for quantification of back movement and movement symmetry during over ground locomotion were assessed; sensor measurements were compared to optical motion capture (mocap) and consistency of measurements focusing on movement symmetry was measured. Methods: Six nonlame horses were trotted in hand with synchronised mocap and inertial sensor data collection (landmarks: T6, T10,...
Keegan KG.Kinematic and kinetic gait analysis potentially offers veterinarians an objective method of determining equine limb lameness. Subjective analyses have been shown to be somewhat flawed, and there does not seem to be a high degree of intraobserver agreement when evaluating individual horses. In addition, recognition of the compensatory effects of primary lameness may be helpful for the practicing equine veterinarian.
Bell RP, Reed SK, Schoonover MJ, Whitfield CT, Yonezawa Y, Maki H, Pai PF, Keegan KG.To investigate associations between inertial sensor and stationary force plate measurements of hind limb lameness in horses. Methods: 21 adult horses with no lameness or with mild hind limb lameness. Methods: Horses were instrumented with inertial sensors and evaluated for lameness with a stationary force plate while trotting in a straight line. Inertial sensor-derived measurements of maximum and minimum pelvic height differences between right and left halves of the stride were compared with vertical and horizontal ground reaction forces (GRFs). Stepwise linear regression was performed to inve...
Dunbar DC, Macpherson JM, Simmons RW, Zarcades A.Segmental kinematics were investigated in horses during overground locomotion and compared with published reports on humans and other primates to determine the impact of a large neck on rotational mobility (> 20 deg.) and stability (< or = 20 deg.) of the head and trunk. Three adult horses (Equus caballus) performing walks, trots and canters were videotaped in lateral view. Data analysis included locomotor velocity, segmental positions, pitch and linear displacements and velocities, and head displacement frequencies. Equine, human and monkey skulls and cervical spines were measured to estimate...
Buchner HH, Savelberg HH, Schamhardt HC, Merkens HW, Barneveld A.A kinematic analysis was carried out to compare treadmill and overground locomotion in horses at the trot. Stride variables and limb and trunk movements of 10 Dutch Warmblood horses were measured using the CODA-3 gait analysis system. Overground recordings were made on a rubber ground surface and on an asphalt track. Treadmill recordings were taken after a controlled habituation programme and at the same velocities as measured overground. On asphalt, a shorthened stride duration and a decreased vertical displacement of the withers were found compared with those on rubber ground. On the treadmi...
Journal of motor behaviorNovember 11, 2005
Volume 37, Issue 6 418-424 doi: 10.3200/JMBR.37.6.418-424
Lagarde J, Kelso JA, Peham C, Licka T.The authors studied the interaction between rider and horse by measuring their ensemble motions in a trot sequence, comparing 1 expert and 1 novice rider. Whereas the novice's movements displayed transient departures from phase synchrony, the expert's motions were continuously phase-matched with those of the horse. The tight ensemble synchrony between the expert and the horse was accompanied by an increase in the temporal regularity of the oscillations of the trunk of the horse. Observed differences between expert and novice riders indicated that phase synchronization is by no means perfect bu...
Starke SD, Willems E, May SA, Pfau T.Trotting a horse in circles is a standard and important part of the subjective equine lameness examination, yet objective data on this form of locomotion are sparse. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of trotting in a circle on head and trunk movement symmetry. Vertical movements of the head, withers, os sacrum and left and right tuber coxae were measured using inertial sensors as 12 sound horses were trotted on a hard surface in a straight line and in a circle on both reins. Seven asymmetry measures and hip hike were calculated for each horse for at least nine strides of comp...
Robert C, Valette JP, Pourcelot P, Audigié F, Denoix JM.A thorough knowledge of the horse's back and limb movements at different speeds is important in the design of training programmes and the prevention of speed-related injuries. The objective of this study was to investigate changes in muscle activity and kinematics of the trot with increased speed. To evaluate these effects, 4 Saddlehorses were recorded while trotting on a horizontal treadmill at speeds ranging from 3.5-6.0 m/s. The 3-D trajectories of skin markers on the left side of the horse and the dorsal midline of the trunk were established. Electrical activity was obtained simultaneously...
Ishihara A, Bertone AL, Rajala-Schultz PJ.To evaluate the association between subjective lameness grades and kinetic gait parameters and assess the variability in kinetic parameters in horses with experimentally induced forelimb lameness. Methods: 32 horses. Methods: Forelimb lameness was induced in each horse via injection of lipopolysaccharide into 1 metacarpophalangeal joint (40 experimental trials). Subjective lameness grading and 13 kinetic gait parameters (force plate analysis) were assessed before (baseline) and at 12, 18, and 24 hours after lipopolysaccharide injection. While horses were trotting, kinetic gait analysis was per...
Lesimple C, Fureix C, De Margerie E, Sénèque E, Menguy H, Hausberger M.Postures have long been used and proved useful to describe animals' behaviours and emotional states, but remains difficult to assess objectively in field conditions. A recent study performed on horses using geometric morphometrics revealed important postural differences between 2 horse populations differing in management conditions (leisure horses living in social groups used for occasional "relaxed" riding/riding school horses living in individual boxes used in daily riding lessons with more constraining techniques). It was suggested that these postural differences may reflect chronic effects...
Rhodin M, Roepstorff L, French A, Keegan KG, Pfau T, Egenvall A.Lungeing is commonly used as part of standard lameness examinations in horses. Knowledge of how lungeing influences motion symmetry in sound horses is needed. Objective: The aim of this study was to objectively evaluate the symmetry of vertical head and pelvic motion during lungeing in a large number of horses with symmetric motion during straight line evaluation. Methods: Cross-sectional prospective study. Methods: A pool of 201 riding horses, all functioning well and considered sound by their owners, were evaluated in trot on a straight line and during lungeing to the left and right. From th...
Starke SD, Witte TH, May SA, Pfau T.Gait analysis using small sensor units is becoming increasingly popular in the clinical context. In order to segment continuous movement from a defined point of the stride cycle, knowledge about footfall timings is essential. We evaluated the accuracy and precision of foot contact timings of a defined limb determined using an inertial sensor mounted on the pelvis of ten horses during walk and trot at different speeds and in different directions. Foot contact was estimated from vertical velocity events occurring before maximum sensor roll towards the contralateral limb. Foot contact timings mat...
Tan H, Wilson AM.Manoeuverability is a key requirement for successful terrestrial locomotion, especially on variable terrain, and is a deciding factor in predator-prey interaction. Compared with straight-line running, bend running requires additional leg force to generate centripetal acceleration. In humans, this results in a reduction in maximum speed during bend running and a published model assuming maximum limb force as a constraint accurately predicts how much a sprinter must slow down on a bend given his maximum straight-line speed. In contrast, greyhounds do not slow down or change stride parameters dur...
Dutto DJ, Hoyt DF, Cogger EA, Wickler SJ.Although the forces required to support the body mass are not elevated when moving up an incline, kinematic studies, in vivo tendon and bone studies and kinetic studies suggest there is a shift in forces from the fore- to the hindlimbs in quadrupeds. However, there are no whole-animal kinetic measurements of incline locomotion. Based on previous related research, we hypothesized that there would be a shift in forces to the hindlimb. The present study measured the force produced by the fore- and hindlimbs of horses while trotting over a range of speeds (2.5 to 5 m s(-1)) on both level and up an...
Gómez Alvarez CB, Rhodin M, Bobber MF, Meyer H, Weishaupt MA, Johnston C, Van Weeren PR.In many equestrian activities a specific position of head and/or neck is required that is dissimilar to the natural position. There is controversy about the effects of these positions on locomotion pattern, but few quantitative data are available. Objective: To quantify the effects of 5 different head and neck positions on thoracolumbar kinematics of the horse. Methods: Kinematics of 7 high level dressage horses were measured walking and trotting on an instrumented treadmill with the head and neck in the following positions: HNP2 = neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3...
Human movement scienceDecember 14, 2004
Volume 23, Issue 5 663-671 doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2004.10.006
Peham C, Licka T, Schobesberger H, Meschan E.The aim of this study was to show that the motion pattern of a well-ridden horse varies less than the motion pattern of an unridden horse. In order to do so, we recorded the motion of two markers, one attached to the dorsal spinous processus of lumbar vertebra L4, the other to the right fore hoof. In total, we measured 21 horses in trot, ridden and unridden, with a fitting and with a non-fitting saddle. After breaking down the entire time series of the three-dimensional motion of the markers into their respective motion cycles, we computed a measure of motion pattern variability for the motion...
