Kinematics in horses refers to the study of motion without considering the forces that cause it. This field involves analyzing the movement patterns of horses, including gait, stride length, joint angles, and limb trajectories. Kinematic analysis is performed using technologies such as high-speed cameras and motion capture systems to collect data on equine locomotion. This information is valuable for understanding normal and abnormal movement, assessing performance, and identifying potential lameness or injury. The study of kinematics provides insights into the biomechanics of horse movement and contributes to advancements in training, rehabilitation, and veterinary care. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the methodologies, findings, and applications of kinematic analysis in equine science.
Ramseier LC, Waldern NM, Wiestner T, Geser-von Peinen K, Weishaupt MA.Icelandic horse riding practices aim to place the rider further caudally on the horse's back than in English riding, claiming that a weight shift toward the hindquarters improves the quality of the tölt (e.g. giving the shoulder more freedom to move). This study compared saddle pressure patterns and the effects on limb kinetics and kinematics of three saddles: an Icelandic saddle (S(Icel), lowest point of seat in the hind part of the saddle), a treeless saddle cushion (S(Cush)) and a dressage-style saddle (S(Dres)). Twelve Icelandic horses were ridden with S(Icel), S(Cush) and S(Dres) on an i...
Waldern NM, Wiestner T, Ramseier LC, Amport C, Weishaupt MA.Tölt is a symmetric four-beat gait with a speed range extending into that of trot and canter. Specific shoeing methods, such as unnaturally high and long hooves, are used to enforce individual gait predisposition. The aim of this study was to assess the consequences of this shoeing style on loading and movement of the limbs at walk, tölt and trot, and at different velocities. Simultaneous kinetic and kinematic gait analysis was carried out at walk (1.4m/s) and at two tölting and trotting speeds (3.3m/s and 3.9 m/s) on an instrumented treadmill. Thirteen sound Icelandic horses were first mea...
Weishaupt MA, Waldern NM, Amport C, Ramseier LC, Wiestner T.To enhance expressiveness of forelimb movement and improve the four-beat rhythm of the tölt, Icelandic horses are commonly ridden with excessively high and long hooves. The aim of this study was to objectively assess the effect of shoeing on intra- and inter-limb coordination and limb movement consistency (inter-stride variability) at walk, tölt and trot. Thirteen sound and fit Icelandic horses accustomed to exercise with a rider on a treadmill were assessed with long and high hooves commonly used for competition (S(H)) and with the hooves trimmed according to the standards of normal shoeing...
Crevier-Denoix N, Pourcelot P, Holden-Douilly L, Camus M, Falala S, Ravary-Plumioën B, Vergari C, Desquilbet L, Chateau H.The type and condition of sport surfaces affect performance and can also be a risk factor for injury. Combining the use a 3-dimensional dynamometric horseshoe (DHS), an accelerometer and high-speed cameras, variables reflecting hoof-ground interaction and maximal limb loading can be measured. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of two racing surfaces, turf and all-weather waxed (AWW), on the forelimbs of five horses at the canter. Vertical hoof velocity before impact was higher on AWW. Maximal deceleration at impact (vertical impact shock) was not significantly different be...
Northrop AJ, Dagg LA, Martin JH, Brigden CV, Owen AG, Blundell EL, Peterson ML, Hobbs SJ.A link between surface characteristics and injury has been identified in equine disciplines. Maintenance procedures are reported to affect surface characteristics and could influence horse movement. The study investigated limb and hoof movement on a synthetic surface following two different preparations (harrowing and rolling). Nine horses were recorded using infrared cameras and retro-reflective markers at walk, trot and canter on two surface preparations in a cross-over design. Hoof rotation and displacement, metacarpophalangeal joint (MCPJ) extension and third metacarpal (McIII) inclination...
Nauwelaerts S, Aerts P, Clayton H.Spontaneous transitions from anti-phase to in-phase manual coordination are explained in the Haken model that describes the two preferred states as stable regions that work as attractors in a stability landscape. Switching between states coincides with a temporary loss of stability. Coordination variability is believed to be indicative of such a loss of stability. In this study, the hypothesis was tested that an increase in variability in the angle profiles of the joints responsible for the transition will precede the transition. A full gait analysis of four miniature horses transitioning from...
Hobbs SJ, Clayton HM.The aims of this study were to measure ground reaction forces (GRFs) of concurrently loaded limbs and to evaluate spatial relationships between the centre of pressure (COP) and centre of mass (COM) in trotting horses. Kinematic (120Hz) and GRF data were collected at trot from three trials of eight horses using four force plates (960 Hz). Forelimb and hind limb GRFs were measured, COP was calculated from the resultant vertical GRF vector and COM was calculated by summation of weighted segmental COMs. Peak total vertical force (19.3 ± 1.3N/kg at 45.1 ± 2.3% diagonal stance) coincided with zero...
Roepstorff L, Wiestner T, Weishaupt MA, Egenvall E.The aim of this study was to compare an inertial motion system (IMS) to an optical based locomotion analysis system measuring limb sagittal segment angles in horses at the walk and trot. The metatarsal/metacarpal bones of two horses (20 trials) were fitted with optical system markers and an IMS. Between the systems, measuring range of motion (ROM) of the sagittal metatarsal/metacarpal bone angles, the IMS measured higher ROM than the optical system (bias 1.6°; precision at 1.96 standard deviation 1.9°). The same angle data were used to assess inter-limb symmetry by calculating phase shift be...
Clayton HM, Buchholz R, Nauwelaerts S.A stabilogram plots movements of the centre of pressure (COP) in the horizontal plane. Derived stabilographic variables quantify postural balance, but it is not known if these variables are size dependent. The aims of this study were to determine which morphological variable was most representative of size, which stabilographic variables were most representative of balance and whether size normalisation improved estimates of postural performance. Croup height (0.93-1.77 m), mass (117-666 kg), base of support (BOS) length (0.74-1.18 m) and BOS width (0.22-0.45 m) were measured in 24 horses. Sta...
Mooij MJ, Jans W, den Heijer GJ, de Pater M, Back W.There is a lack of evidence for the presumed beneficial effects of water treadmills on the movement of the horse's back. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of water treadmill exercise on axial rotation (AR), lateral bending (LB) and pelvic flexion (PF) in horses. The back kinematics of a group of riding horses were studied at the walk in a water treadmill at different depths of water (hoof, fetlock, carpus, elbow and shoulder joint levels) over a period of 10 days. Skin markers were placed at anatomical locations on the back. AR, LB and PF were measured on days 1 and 10 using two...
Eisersiö M, Roepstorff L, Weishaupt MA, Egenvall A.The aim of this study was to investigate the behavioural response of horses to rein contact and the movement of the riders' hands through analysis of data from horses ridden at two different head and neck positions. It was hypothesised that the riders' hand movements and rein tension would generate behavioural responses from horses and that these responses would be more marked when horses were ridden 'on the bit' than when unrestrained. Data were collected from seven dressage horse/rider combinations at sitting trot on a high speed treadmill. Kinematics were recorded using a 12-camera, infrare...
Seminati E, Nardello F, Zamparo P, Ardigò LP, Faccioli N, Minetti AE.We hypothesized that, as occurring in cars, body structural asymmetries could generate asymmetry in the kinematics/dynamics of locomotion, ending up in a higher metabolic cost of transport, i.e. more 'fuel' needed to travel a given distance. Previous studies found the asymmetries in horses' body negatively correlated with galloping performance. In this investigation, we analyzed anatomical differences between the left and right lower limbs as a whole by performing 3D cross-correlation of Magnetic Resonance Images of 19 male runners, clustered as Untrained Runners, Occasional Runners and Skille...
Halley SE, Bey MJ, Haladik JA, Lavagnino M, Arnoczky SP.Studies examining the effect of stifle joint angle on tibial rotation, adduction-abduction angle and articular contact area are lacking. Objective: To test the hypothesis that tibial rotation, adduction-abduction angle and articular contact area change with stifle joint angle. Methods: Descriptive study of normal kinematics and articular contact patterns of the equine stifle through the functional range of motion using 3 dimensional (3D) radiosteriometric analysis (RSA) and equine cadaver stifles. Methods: Multiple, radiopaque markers were embedded in the distal femur and proximal tibia and se...
Symons JE, Garcia TC, Stover SM.The effect of racetrack surface (dirt or synthetic) on distal hindlimb kinematics of racehorses running at competition speeds is not known. Objective: To compare distal hindlimb and hoof kinematics during stance of breezing (unrestrained gallop) racehorses between dirt and synthetic surfaces. Methods: Two-dimensional kinematic video analysis of 5 Thoroughbred racehorses galloping at high speeds (12-17 m/s) on a dirt racetrack and a synthetic racetrack. Methods: The positions of kinematic markers applied to the left hindlimb were recorded at 500 Hz. Position, velocity and acceleration of jo...
Moorman VJ, Reiser RF, Peterson ML, McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE.To determine kinematic changes to the hoof of horses at a walk after induction of unilateral, weight-bearing forelimb lameness and to determine whether hoof kinematics return to prelameness (baseline) values after perineural anesthesia. Methods: 6 clinically normal Quarter Horses. Methods: For each horse, a sole-pressure model was used to induce 3 grades of lameness in the right forelimb, after which perineural anesthesia was administered to eliminate lameness. Optical kinematics were obtained for both forelimbs with the horse walking before (baseline) and after induction of each grade of lame...
Moorman VJ, Reiser RF, Peterson ML, McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE.To determine kinematic changes to the hoof of horses at a trot after induction of unilateral, weight-bearing forelimb lameness and to determine whether hoof kinematics return to prelameness values after perineural anesthesia. Methods: 6 clinically normal Quarter Horses. Methods: For each horse, a sole-pressure model was used to induce 3 grades (grades 1, 2, and 3) of lameness in the right forelimb, after which perineural anesthesia was administered to alleviate lameness. Optical kinematics were obtained for both forelimbs with the horse trotting before (baseline) and after induction of each gr...
Viry S, Sleimen-Malkoun R, Temprado JJ, Frances JP, Berton E, Laurent M, Nicol C.In riding, most biomechanical studies have focused on the description of the horse locomotion in unridden condition. In this study, we draw the prospect of how the basic principles established in inter-personal coordination by the theory of Coordination Dynamics may provide a conceptual and methodological framework for understanding the horse-rider coupling. The recent development of mobile technologies allows combined horse and rider recordings during long lasting natural events such as endurance races. Six international horse-rider dyads were thus recorded during a 120 km race by using two t...
Walker VA, Dyson SJ, Murray RC.Development of core muscle strength is important for training and during rehabilitation following injury. A Pessoa training aid (PTA) is a system of ropes and pulleys which is commonly used during equine training and rehabilitation, but there is limited information on its effectiveness. The objective of the study was to determine the effect of the PTA on the temporal, linear and angular kinematics of the working trot. Influence of testing order on effect of a PTA was assessed in four horses. Twelve riding horses were lunged at working trot on a 16 m diameter circle without (WO) and with a PTA ...
Olsen E, Pfau T, Ritz C.Over ground motion analysis in horses is limited by a small number of strides and restraints of the indoor gait laboratory. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) are transforming the knowledge of human motion and objective clinical assessment through the opportunity to obtain clinically relevant data under various conditions. When using IMUs on the limbs of horses to determine local position estimates, conditions with high dynamic range of both accelerations and rotational velocities prove particularly challenging. Here we apply traditional method agreement and suggest a novel method of functional...
Solé M, Santos R, Gómez MD, Galisteo AM, Valera M.The work describes and compares the conformation traits and gait characteristics in the main native Iberian dressage Purebreds (Lusitano, Spanish and Menorca horses). In total, 4 strides belonging to each of 66 males (4-14 years old) were recorded at handled trot, using a 3D semi-automatic movement analysis system. Principal component analysis (PCA) and intraclass Correlations (iC) were computed. The Menorca Purebred showed proportionally higher limbs (23.8 and 15.1cm for the forelimb cannon and pastern lengths), the Lusitano Purebred had larger inclinations (66.1°, 37.7° and 47.9° for the ...
de Cocq P, Muller M, Clayton HM, van Leeuwen JL.The simplest model possible for bouncing systems consists of a point mass bouncing passively on a mass-less spring without viscous losses. This type of spring-mass model has been used to describe the stance period of symmetric running gaits. In this study, we investigated the interaction between horse and rider at trot using three models of force-driven spring (-damper)-mass systems. The first system consisted of a spring and a mass representing the horse that interact with another spring and mass representing the rider. In the second spring-damper-mass model, dampers, a free-fall and a forcin...
Nauwelaerts S, Aerts P, Clayton H.Gaits can be defined based upon specific interlimb coordination patterns characteristic of a limited range of speeds, with one or more defining variables changing discontinuously at a transition. With changing speed, horses perform a repertoire of gaits (walk, trot, canter and gallop), with transitions between them. Knowledge of the series of kinematic events necessary to realize a gait is essential for understanding the proximate mechanisms as well as the control underlying gait transitions. We studied the kinematics of the actual transition from trot to canter in miniature horses. The kinema...
Matsuura A, Sakuma S, Irimajiri M, Hodate K.The aim of this study was to determine the loading capacity of a trotting Taishuh pony by gait analysis using a motion analysis system. Seven Taishuh Ponies (5 mares and 2 geldings) and their rider were fitted with a marker (70 mm in diameter placed on their chest) and recorded by 2 high-resolution digital DVD cameras (at a sampling frequency of 60 Hz) as they were trotting along a straight course. Each horse performed 7 tests: 1 test with a loaded weight of 70 kg, 5 tests with random loaded weights between 80 kg and 120 kg, and a final test with a loaded weight of 70 kg again. Three-dimension...
Holden-Douilly L, Pourcelot P, Desquilbet L, Falala S, Crevier-Denoix N, Chateau H.Longitudinal sliding of horse's hooves at the beginning of stance can affect both performance and orthopaedic health. The objective of this study was to compare two measurement methods for quantifying hoof slip distances at training trot. The right front hoof of four French Trotters was equipped with an accelerometer (10 kHz) and kinematic markers. A firm wet sand track was equipped with a 50 m calibration corridor. A high-frequency camera (600 Hz) was mounted in a vehicle following each horse trotting at about 7 m/s. One of the horses was also trotted on raw dirt and harrowed dirt tracks. Lon...
Moro FL, Spröwitz A, Tuleu A, Vespignani M, Tsagarakis NG, Ijspeert AJ, Caldwell DG.This manuscript proposes a method to directly transfer the features of horse walking, trotting, and galloping to a quadruped robot, with the aim of creating a much more natural (horse-like) locomotion profile. A principal component analysis on horse joint trajectories shows that walk, trot, and gallop can be described by a set of four kinematic Motion Primitives (kMPs). These kMPs are used to generate valid, stable gaits that are tested on a compliant quadruped robot. Tests on the effects of gait frequency scaling as follows: results indicate a speed optimal walking frequency around 3.4 Hz, an...
Janicek J, Lopes MA, Wilson DA, Reed S, Keegan KG.Fibrotic myopathy can cause incapacitating gait abnormalities. Transection of the fibrotic mass followed by early post operative exercise is the best treatment for fibrotic myopathy. A laser may be used to transect the fibrotic mass. Assessment of the effectiveness of therapies for fibrotic myopathy has been limited to subjective evaluation. Objective: To objectively assess gait abnormalities associated with fibrotic myopathy before and after laser fibrotomy followed by early post operative exercise. Methods: Kinematic evaluation of horses with fibrotic myopathy walking and trotting on a tread...
Rosanowski SM, Cogger N, Rogers CW, Bolwell CF, Benschop J, Stevenson MA.To investigate property-level factors associated with the movement of horses from non-commercial horse properties, including the size and location of the property, number and reason for keeping horses. Methods: Using a cross-sectional survey 2,912 questionnaires were posted to randomly selected non-commercial horse properties listed in a rural property database. The survey collected information about the number of horses, and reasons for keeping horses on the property, and any movement of horses in the previous 12 months. Three property-level outcomes were investigated; the movement status of ...
Human movement scienceJanuary 4, 2013
Volume 32, Issue 1 157-170 doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2012.11.002
Wolframm IA, Bosga J, Meulenbroek RG.The sport of equestrianism is defined through close horse-rider interaction. However, no consistent baseline parameters currently exist describing the coordination dynamics of horse-rider movement across different equine gaits. The study aims to employ accelerometers to investigate and describe patterns of motor coordination between horse and rider across the equine gaits of walk, rising trot, sitting trot and canter. Eighteen female (N=18; mean age±SD: 37.57±13.04) Dutch horse-rider combinations were recruited to participate in the study. Horse-rider coordination was recorded using two tri-...
Weller R, Pfau T, Babbage D, Brittin E, May SA, Wilson AM.The importance of a reliable method for conformation studies is generally acknowledged, but there are only limited data on the accuracy and precision of current assessment methods. Objective: To assess (1) the accuracy and repeatability of marker placement, (2) influence of stance of the horse on conformational parameters, (3) practicality of a computerised motion analysis system and (4) to compare the computerised motion analysis system to photographic systems of assessment. Methods: Twenty-eight reflective markers placed over anatomical landmarks were located in 3D using a computerised motio...
Sapone M, Martin P, Ben Mansour K, Chateau H, Marin F.The protraction and retraction angles of horse limbs are important in the analysis of horse locomotion. This study explored two methods from an IMU positioned on the canon bone of eight horses to estimate these angles. Each method was based on a hypothesis in order to define the moment corresponding with the verticality of the canon bone: (i) the canon bone is in a vertical position at 50% of the stance phase or (ii) the verticality of the canon bone corresponds with the moment when the horse's withers reach their lowest point. The measurements were carried out on a treadmill at a trot and com...
Degueurce C, Pourcelot P, Audigié F, Denoix JM, Geiger D.The reproducibility of gait variables for sound horses is essential for the interpretation of their modifications by locomotor disorders. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the variability of the limb joint angle patterns in a population of sound horses while they trotted in the conditions of the routine lameness examination (slow trot, just held by hand, on a track, outdoors). The kinematics of 14 French Saddle horses was recorded using a 3-dimensional (3D) kinematic analysis system. Angle-time diagrams were established in the sagittal plane and their intra- and inter-indivi...
Zsoldos RR, Voegele A, Krueger B, Schroeder U, Weber A, Licka TF.The equine m. gluteus medius (GM) is the largest muscle of the horse, its main movement function is the extension of the hip joint. The objective of the present study was to measure equine GM activity in three adjacent locations on GM during walk and trot on a treadmill, in order to document potential differences. Fourteen Haflinger mares were measured using surface electromyography and kinematic markers to identify the motion cycles on three occasions over 16 weeks. The electrodes were placed on left and right gluteus medius muscle over the middle of its widest part and 5 cm lateral and med...
Bullimore SR, Burn JF.It is possible for animals of very different sizes to use the same patterns of locomotion, i.e. to move in a ;dynamically similar fashion'. This will only occur, however, if relevant biomechanical parameters scale with size in such a way that they compensate for the effects of size differences. Here we apply this principle to understanding the effects of size on locomotion within a species: the domestic horse. We predict that, without any factor to compensate for size differences, detectable deviations from dynamically similar locomotion would occur over the size range present in adult horses....
Holden-Douilly L, Pourcelot P, Desquilbet L, Falala S, Crevier-Denoix N, Chateau H.Longitudinal sliding of horse's hooves at the beginning of stance can affect both performance and orthopaedic health. The objective of this study was to compare two measurement methods for quantifying hoof slip distances at training trot. The right front hoof of four French Trotters was equipped with an accelerometer (10 kHz) and kinematic markers. A firm wet sand track was equipped with a 50 m calibration corridor. A high-frequency camera (600 Hz) was mounted in a vehicle following each horse trotting at about 7 m/s. One of the horses was also trotted on raw dirt and harrowed dirt tracks. Lon...
Human movement scienceMay 13, 2009
Volume 28, Issue 3 394-405 doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2009.04.002
Witte K, Schobesberger H, Peham C.As a consequence of the three interacting systems of horse, saddle, and rider, horseback riding is a very complex movement that is difficult to characterize by a limited number of biomechanical parameters or characteristic curves. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a technique for reducing multidimensional datasets to a minimal (i.e., optimally economic) set of dimensions. To apply PCA to horseback riding data, a "pattern vector" composed of the horizontal velocities of a set of body markers was determined. PCA was used to identify the major dynamic constituents of the three natural gaits o...
Back W, Schamhardt HC, Barneveld A.In purchase examinations or at studbook selection sales the locomotor apparatus of horses is judged both at walk and trot. To evaluate whether kinematics of the walk are related to the locomotion at the trot, fore and hind limb movements of a group of 24 26-month-old warmbloods were recorded at walk and trot on a treadmill (1.6 and 4 m/s) using a modified CODA-3 gait analysis system. The intralimb coordination patterns at walk and trot were compared, and temporal and spatial variables of these gaits were related. Stride and stance durations (s) were shorter at the trot, while the stance distan...
Santamaría S, Bobbert MF, Back W, Barneveld A, van Weeren PR.To investigate the effects of early training for jumping by comparing the jumping technique of horses that had received early training with that of horses raised conventionally. Methods: 40 Dutch Warmblood horses. Methods: The horses were analyzed kinematically during free jumping at 6 months of age. Subsequently, they were allocated into a control group that was raised conventionally and an experimental group that received 30 months of early training starting at 6 months of age. At 4 years of age, after a period of rest in pasture and a short period of training with a rider, both groups were ...
Nanua P, Waldron KJ.In this paper, the dynamics of quadruped trot, gallop, and bound will be examined using a simple model for the quadruped. The body of the quadruped is modeled as a uniform bar and the legs are modeled by massless springs. It will be shown that symmetry can be used to study the locomotion of this system. Using symmetry, a technique will be developed to obtain periodic solutions for each of the gaits of the quadruped model. These periodic solutions will be computed at various speeds. The energy levels will be compared for each of the gaits. The exchange of energy between its different forms will...
Lanovaz JL, Clayton HM.Estimations of segmental inertial parameters are required for true inverse dynamics calculations during the swing phase of locomotion. This study attempts to quantify the effect of inertial parameter errors on inverse dynamic solutions. Swing phase forelimb net joint moments and powers at the trot (mean +/- s.d 3.03 +/- 0.16 m/s) were calculated with sagittal plane kinematic data from 5 Dutch Warmbloods using inertial parameters based on published regression equations for the breed. Significant peaks in the net moment and power curves for each forelimb joint were identified and measured. Net j...
Addis PR, Lawson SE.The flexor tendons support the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) and distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints during stance phase and since tendon stiffness and strain changes with age, it is likely that kinematics are also age-dependent. Objective: Maximum MCP and DIP angles decrease in the young horse, plateau in the mature horse and increase towards senescence. Methods: The distal limbs of 57 walking horses age 3-212 months were filmed and digitised with an automated tracking system. Maximum MCP and DIP angles during stance phase were used to calculate strain in the superficial and deep digital flexor t...
Ferrari M, Pfau T, Wilson AM, Weller R.The influence of training on stride parameters is controversial and to date there is no information on how training influences stride parameters during high-speed locomotion in the field. Objective: To determine the influence of training on stride variables during high-speed locomotion in Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Speed, stride frequency, stance and protraction times were quantified in 8 Thoroughbreds with foot mounted accelerometers and GPS sensors during their first week of canter after the summer break and 6 months into training. Results: At a speed of 11 m/s, stride frequency was (...
Johnston C, Holm KR, Erichsen C, Eksell P, Drevemo S.Clinical history and examination are important features in diagnosis of equine back dysfunction. However, interpretation is subjective and therefore may vary substantially. Objective: To establish a clinical tool to objectively evaluate the function of the equine back, in the form of a database on the kinematics of the back at the walk and trot in fully functioning riding horses. Methods: Thirty-three fully functioning riding horses walked and trotted on a treadmill. Morphometrics and kinematics were tested for correlations to age, height, weight and stride length, and differences between gend...
Langsetmo I, Poole DC.At the onset of exercise, horses exhibit O2 uptake (VO2) kinetics that are qualitatively similar to those of humans. In humans, there is a marked dissymmetry between on- and off-kinetics for VO2. This investigation sought to formally characterize the off-transient (recovery) VO2 kinetics in the horse within the moderate (M), heavy (H), and severe (S) exercise domains. Six horses were run on a high-speed treadmill at M, H, and S exercise intensities (i.e., that speed which yielded approximately 50, 85, 100% peak VO2, respectively, on the maximal incremental test). The time courses for the recov...
De Cocq P, Prinsen H, Springer NC, van Weeren PR, Schreuder M, Muller M, van Leeuwen JL.During trot, the rider can either rise from the saddle during every stride or remain seated. Rising trot is used frequently because it is widely assumed that it decreases the loading of the equine back. This has, however, not been demonstrated in an objective study. Objective: To determine the effects of rising and sitting trot on the movements of the horse. Objective: Sitting trot has more extending effect on the horse's back than rising trot and also results in a higher head and neck position. Methods: Twelve horses and one rider were used. Kinematic data were captured at trot during over gr...
Clayton HM, Townsend HG.A photographic method was used to measure axial rotation, dorsoventral flexion and extension and lateral bending at each intervertebral joint complex from the occiput to the first thoracic vertebra in spinal segments from 19 foals under 12 months of age and 14 horses over three years of age. Comparisons between the two groups showed that there was a general reduction in cervical spinal mobility with age. For the three types of movement at the eight joints tested, adults' mobility exceeded that of foals in only three cases (axial rotation and lateral bending at the A-O joint, and lateral bendin...
Crevier-Denoix N, Roosen C, Dardillat C, Pourcelot P, Jerbi H, Sanaa M, Denoix JM.Five sound mature horses, age 8-14 years, with toe angles 45.5-55.0 degrees were placed on a specially designed platform with only the left forelimb weightbearing, which allowed the successive production of 7 different conditions of foot orientation: neutral position (N), 5, 10, 15 degrees heel (H5, H10, H15) and toe (T5, T10, T15) elevation, performed according to 2 different sequences. For each condition, 2 lateromedial radiographs were taken to evaluate the metacarpophalangeal joint (MPJ) and both interphalangeal joint (PIPJ and DIPJ) angles, respectively. In addition, two-dimensional (2-D)...
van Weeren PR, Jansen MO, van den Bogert AJ, Barneveld A.Hind limb kinematics were recorded in five horses at walk and trot using an opto-electronic CODA-3 system. Simultaneously, in vivo strain in the completely tendinous peroneus tertius muscle was registered by implanted mercury-in-silastic strain gauges. The origin-insertion length patterns of the peroneus tertius were calculated from raw kinematic data and from data corrected for the error caused by skin displacement, and compared with the directly measured strain. The strain patterns calculated from externally measured kinematic data appeared to be in accordance with the directly measured stra...
Bhuyan AK, Kumar R.To determine the kinetic barrier in the folding of horse cytochrome c, a CO-liganded derivative of cytochrome c, called carbonmonoxycytochrome c, has been prepared by exploiting the thermodynamic reversibility of ferrocytochrome c unfolding induced by guanidinium hydrochloride (GdnHCl), pH 7. The CO binding properties of unfolded ferrocytochrome c, studied by 13C NMR and optical spectroscopy, are remarkably similar to those of native myoglobin and isolated chains of human hemoglobin. Equilibrium unfolding transitions of ferrocytochrome c in the presence and the absence of CO observed by both e...
Nauwelaerts S, Allen WA, Lane JM, Clayton HM.Quantifying the dynamics of limb movements requires knowledge of the mass distribution between and within limb segments. We measured segment masses, positions of segmental center of mass and moments of inertia of the fore and hind limb segments for 38 horses of different breeds and sizes. After disarticulation by dissections, segments were weighed and the position of the center of mass was determined by suspension. Moment of inertia was measured using a trifilar pendulum. We found that mass distribution does not change with size for animals under 600 kg and report ratios of segmental masses to...
Smit IH, Hernlund E, Brommer H, van Weeren PR, Rhodin M, Serra Bragança FM.Gait kinematics measured during equine gait analysis are typically evaluated by analysing (asymmetry-based) discrete variables (eg, peak values) obtained from continuous kinematic signals (eg, timeseries of datapoints). However, when used for the assessment of complex cases of lameness, such as bilateral lameness, discrete variable analysis might overlook relevant functional adaptations. Objective: The overall aim of this paper is to compare continuous and discrete data analysis techniques to evaluate kinematic gait adaptations to lameness. Methods: Method comparison. Methods: Sixteen healthy ...
Khumsap S, Lanovaz JL, Rosenstein DS, Byron C, Clayton HM.To study the effect of unilateral synovitis in the distal intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joints on locomotion, including the compensating effects within and between limbs. Methods: 4 clinically normal horses. Methods: Gait analyses including kinematics, force plate, and inverse dynamic analysis were performed at the trot before lameness, after which synovitis was induced by injecting endotoxin into the right distal intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joints. Gait analyses were repeated 24 to 30 hours later during lameness. Differences between the stride variables during the 2 conditions (lame and...
König von Borstel U, Kienapfel K, McLean A, Wilkins C, McGreevy P.The article reports a meta-analysis of 58 peer-reviewed studies investigating on dorsoventral hyperflexion of the neck in horses, a practice under substantial public and scientific scrutiny for the past two decades. The following databases were last searched on 28.05.2023: CAB, Google Scholar, Web of Science, NAL/Agricola, PubMed and ScienceDirect. After evaluating the conclusions of each study, we performed statistical analyses to establish a consensus on welfare and performance (performance marks, kinematics and musculoskeletal) outcomes in horses performing with a hyperflexed head and neck ...
Pfau T, Scott WM, Sternberg Allen T.Veterinary lameness examinations often comprise assessing ridden horses. Quantitative movement symmetry measurements can aid evidence-based decision making. While these are available for ‘English’ style riding, they are not for ‘Western’ style riding. This quantitative observational study quantified movement symmetry in reining Quarter Horses (QHs). Movement symmetry of the head, withers and sacrum (differences between minima, maxima and upward amplitudes) were quantified with inertial sensors in N = 30 medium/high level reining QHs during trot in-hand, on the lunge and ridden by one e...
Science (New York, N.Y.)March 14, 1986
Volume 231, Issue 4743 1292-1294 doi: 10.1126/science.3945823
Raibert MH.Symmetry plays a key role in simplifying the control of legged robots and in giving them the ability to run and balance. The symmetries studied describe motion of the body and legs in terms of even and odd functions of time. A legged system running with these symmetries travels with a fixed forward speed and a stable upright posture. The symmetries used for controlling legged robots may help in elucidating the legged behavior of animals. Measurements of running in the cat and human show that the feet and body sometimes move as predicted by the even and odd symmetry functions.
Horan K, Kourdache K, Coburn J, Day P, Brinkley L, Carnall H, Harborne D, Hammond L, Millard S, Pfau T.Riding racehorses is a high-risk profession and optimizing safety alongside performance is paramount. Horseshoes play a critical role in providing traction with the ground surface and are therefore a major determinant of safety. However, the subjective perceptions of expert riders influence attitudes towards using different shoes and must be taken into consideration before any changes may be implemented. This study used a questionnaire-based method to evaluate jockey opinion of four shoeing conditions (aluminum, steel, GluShu, and barefoot) trialed at gallop over turf and artificial surfaces. ...
Frigerio MA, Gómez Cisneros D, Santiago Llorente I, Manso-Díaz G, López-Sanromán J.Chemical restraint is often used to perform diagnostic and minor surgical procedures; α2 -adrenoceptor agonists are the most commonly used drugs; however, the combination with an opiate can induce a profound sedation. There is a lack of kinematic studies examining the effects of the combination of these drugs on locomotor patterns. Objective: The objective of the study was to evaluate the duration of the effects of sedation with detomidine and detomidine combined with a low dose of butorphanol on the movement patterns of horses. Methods: The study was a controlled, randomised, blinded and cro...
Stutz JC, Vidondo B, Ramseyer A, Maninchedda UE, Cruz AM.Therapeutic farriery is part of the management of certain orthopaedic conditions. Non-podal parameters are important as most horses shod with therapeutic shoes are expected to perform again and the choice of shoe type may be influenced by the effects they may have on gait. The aim of this prospective study was to evaluate the effects of three different shoe designs and unshod front feet on forelimb non-podal kinematic variables using an extremity mounted inertial measurement unit (IMU) system under conditions of treadmill and overground exercise on a soft geotextile surface at the trot. Ten so...
Parsons KJ, Pfau T, Ferrari M, Wilson AM.During locomotion on an incline, mechanical work is performed to move an animal up the slope and increase the potential energy (PE) of the trunk and hence the centre of mass (CoM). Thus, at a given speed the total net mechanical work increases with the PE of the animal. In this study we investigate the mechanical energy (ME) fluctuations and the mechanical cost of transport (MCT) in six horses galloping up a range of gradients. We captured trunk movement with a six degrees-of-freedom inertial sensor mounted over the dorsal spinous process of the fourth to sixth thoracic vertebrae of the horse....
