Omneity® Pellets
All-In-One Vitamin & Mineral Pellet
Topic:Locomotion
Locomotion in horses refers to the movement mechanisms that enable horses to walk, trot, canter, and gallop. It involves a complex interplay of the musculoskeletal and nervous systems, allowing for efficient and coordinated movement. Studies on equine locomotion often focus on gait analysis, biomechanics, and the impact of various factors such as conformation, training, and surface conditions on movement. Research in this area contributes to understanding performance, diagnosing lameness, and improving rehabilitation practices. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the biomechanics, gait patterns, and factors influencing locomotion in horses.
Effects of shoeing on limb movement and ground reaction forces in Icelandic horses at walk, tölt and trot. Tölt is a symmetric four-beat gait with a speed range extending into that of trot and canter. Specific shoeing methods, such as unnaturally high and long hooves, are used to enforce individual gait predisposition. The aim of this study was to assess the consequences of this shoeing style on loading and movement of the limbs at walk, tölt and trot, and at different velocities. Simultaneous kinetic and kinematic gait analysis was carried out at walk (1.4m/s) and at two tölting and trotting speeds (3.3m/s and 3.9 m/s) on an instrumented treadmill. Thirteen sound Icelandic horses were first mea...
Effects of shoeing on intra- and inter-limb coordination and movement consistency in Icelandic horses at walk, tölt and trot. To enhance expressiveness of forelimb movement and improve the four-beat rhythm of the tölt, Icelandic horses are commonly ridden with excessively high and long hooves. The aim of this study was to objectively assess the effect of shoeing on intra- and inter-limb coordination and limb movement consistency (inter-stride variability) at walk, tölt and trot. Thirteen sound and fit Icelandic horses accustomed to exercise with a rider on a treadmill were assessed with long and high hooves commonly used for competition (S(H)) and with the hooves trimmed according to the standards of normal shoeing...
Development of postural balance in foals. This study used stabilographic analysis to measure and describe changes in stability during standing in foals from birth to 5 months of age. Stabilographic analysis was performed on newborn foals immediately after first suckling then daily until 1 week of age, weekly until 1 month of age and monthly until 5 months of age. Ground reaction force (GRF) data were collected for periods of 8s with the foal standing on one or two force plates recording at 1000 Hz. Stabilographic variables describing the amplitude, velocity and frequency of center of pressure (COP) movements were derived from the GRF ...
Stride to stride variability in joint angle profiles during transitions from trot to canter in horses. Spontaneous transitions from anti-phase to in-phase manual coordination are explained in the Haken model that describes the two preferred states as stable regions that work as attractors in a stability landscape. Switching between states coincides with a temporary loss of stability. Coordination variability is believed to be indicative of such a loss of stability. In this study, the hypothesis was tested that an increase in variability in the angle profiles of the joints responsible for the transition will precede the transition. A full gait analysis of four miniature horses transitioning from...
Effect of lungeing on head and pelvic movement asymmetry in horses with induced lameness. Lungeing is an important part of lameness examinations, since the circular path enforced during lungeing is thought to accentuate low grade lameness. However, during lungeing the movement of sound horses becomes naturally asymmetric, which may mimic lameness. Also, compensatory movements in the opposite half of the body may mimic lameness. The aim of this study was to objectively study the presence of circle-dependent and compensatory movement asymmetries in horses with induced lameness. Ten horses were trotted in a straight line and lunged in both directions on a hard surface. Lameness was in...
Does long-term unilateral circling affect locomotor symmetry in ponies used for carousel rides? There is ethical debate on the use of ponies for carousel rides at city fairs, as these animals may develop progressive locomotor asymmetry during their career. To investigate this issue, 21 ponies used for carousel rides were walked and trotted over a pressure plate system. Non-directional symmetry ratios and directional asymmetry indices of forelimb peak vertical force (PVF), vertical impulse (VI), stance time (ST) and hoof contact area (CA) were calculated and compared to reference data. In both the carousel and reference groups, most ponies presented higher loading of the right forelimb at...
Sagittal plane ground reaction forces, centre of pressure and centre of mass in trotting horses. The aims of this study were to measure ground reaction forces (GRFs) of concurrently loaded limbs and to evaluate spatial relationships between the centre of pressure (COP) and centre of mass (COM) in trotting horses. Kinematic (120Hz) and GRF data were collected at trot from three trials of eight horses using four force plates (960 Hz). Forelimb and hind limb GRFs were measured, COP was calculated from the resultant vertical GRF vector and COM was calculated by summation of weighted segmental COMs. Peak total vertical force (19.3 ± 1.3N/kg at 45.1 ± 2.3% diagonal stance) coincided with zero...
Comparison of microgyro-based measurements of equine metatarsal/metacarpal bone to a high speed video locomotion analysis system during treadmill locomotion. The aim of this study was to compare an inertial motion system (IMS) to an optical based locomotion analysis system measuring limb sagittal segment angles in horses at the walk and trot. The metatarsal/metacarpal bones of two horses (20 trials) were fitted with optical system markers and an IMS. Between the systems, measuring range of motion (ROM) of the sagittal metatarsal/metacarpal bone angles, the IMS measured higher ROM than the optical system (bias 1.6°; precision at 1.96 standard deviation 1.9°). The same angle data were used to assess inter-limb symmetry by calculating phase shift be...
Head and pelvic movement symmetry in horses during circular motion and in rising trot. Lameness examinations in horses often include lungeing and ridden exercise. To incorporate these exercises into the evidence-based decision making process aided by quantitative sensor based gait analysis, guideline values for movement asymmetry are needed. In this study, movement symmetry (MS) was quantified in horses during unridden and ridden trot on the straight and on the circle. Systematic changes in MS were expected as a result of the 'asymmetrical loading' caused by circular movement, the rising trot and the combination of the two. Out of 23 horses (age 4-20 years, height 13.3-17.2 hand...
Pressure plate analysis of toe-heel and medio-lateral hoof balance at the walk and trot in sound sport horses. Empirically, equine distal limb lameness is often linked to hoof imbalance. To objectively quantify dynamic toe-heel and medio-lateral hoof balance of the vertical ground reaction force in sound sport horses, seven Royal Dutch Sport Horses were led at the walk and trot over a dynamically calibrated pressure plate. Forelimb hoof prints were divided into a toe and heel region and a medial and lateral zone. Toe-heel and medio-lateral hoof balance of the vertical ground reaction force were calculated throughout the stance. Toe-heel balance was highly symmetrical between contralateral limbs at both...
Relationship between morphological and stabilographic variables in standing horses. A stabilogram plots movements of the centre of pressure (COP) in the horizontal plane. Derived stabilographic variables quantify postural balance, but it is not known if these variables are size dependent. The aims of this study were to determine which morphological variable was most representative of size, which stabilographic variables were most representative of balance and whether size normalisation improved estimates of postural performance. Croup height (0.93-1.77 m), mass (117-666 kg), base of support (BOS) length (0.74-1.18 m) and BOS width (0.22-0.45 m) were measured in 24 horses. Sta...
Anatomically asymmetrical runners move more asymmetrically at the same metabolic cost. We hypothesized that, as occurring in cars, body structural asymmetries could generate asymmetry in the kinematics/dynamics of locomotion, ending up in a higher metabolic cost of transport, i.e. more 'fuel' needed to travel a given distance. Previous studies found the asymmetries in horses' body negatively correlated with galloping performance. In this investigation, we analyzed anatomical differences between the left and right lower limbs as a whole by performing 3D cross-correlation of Magnetic Resonance Images of 19 male runners, clustered as Untrained Runners, Occasional Runners and Skille...
A prospective study on a cohort of horses and ponies selected for participation in the European Eventing Championship: reasons for withdrawal and predictive value of fitness tests. Eventing is generally recognized as a challenging equestrian discipline and wastage figures for this discipline are relatively high. There is a need for information that provides insight into the causes of wastage and withdrawal from competition, for animal welfare and economic reasons. The aim of the present investigation was to conduct a prospective study following the entire national selection of event horses (n = 20) and ponies (n = 9) in the Netherlands that prepared for the European Championship in 2010 (ponies) and 2011 (horses), noting causes of withdrawal and monitoring fitness using ...
Constraints on Mammalian forelimb development: insights from developmental disparity. Tetrapod limb development has been studied extensively for decades, yet the strength and role of developmental constraints in this process remains unresolved. Mammals exhibit a particularly wide array of limb morphologies associated with various locomotion modes and behaviors, providing a useful system for identifying periods of developmental constraint and conserved developmental mechanisms or morphologies. In this study, landmark-based geometric morphometrics are used to investigate levels and patterns of morphological diversity (disparity) among the developing forelimbs of four mammals with...
Patterns of horse-rider coordination during endurance race: a dynamical system approach. In riding, most biomechanical studies have focused on the description of the horse locomotion in unridden condition. In this study, we draw the prospect of how the basic principles established in inter-personal coordination by the theory of Coordination Dynamics may provide a conceptual and methodological framework for understanding the horse-rider coupling. The recent development of mobile technologies allows combined horse and rider recordings during long lasting natural events such as endurance races. Six international horse-rider dyads were thus recorded during a 120 km race by using two t...
Effect of a Pessoa training aid on temporal, linear and angular variables of the working trot. Development of core muscle strength is important for training and during rehabilitation following injury. A Pessoa training aid (PTA) is a system of ropes and pulleys which is commonly used during equine training and rehabilitation, but there is limited information on its effectiveness. The objective of the study was to determine the effect of the PTA on the temporal, linear and angular kinematics of the working trot. Influence of testing order on effect of a PTA was assessed in four horses. Twelve riding horses were lunged at working trot on a 16 m diameter circle without (WO) and with a PTA ...
Functional limits of agreement applied as a novel method comparison tool for accuracy and precision of inertial measurement unit derived displacement of the distal limb in horses. Over ground motion analysis in horses is limited by a small number of strides and restraints of the indoor gait laboratory. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) are transforming the knowledge of human motion and objective clinical assessment through the opportunity to obtain clinically relevant data under various conditions. When using IMUs on the limbs of horses to determine local position estimates, conditions with high dynamic range of both accelerations and rotational velocities prove particularly challenging. Here we apply traditional method agreement and suggest a novel method of functional...
Spatio-temporal gait characteristics during transitions from trot to canter in horses. Gaits can be defined based upon specific interlimb coordination patterns characteristic of a limited range of speeds, with one or more defining variables changing discontinuously at a transition. With changing speed, horses perform a repertoire of gaits (walk, trot, canter and gallop), with transitions between them. Knowledge of the series of kinematic events necessary to realize a gait is essential for understanding the proximate mechanisms as well as the control underlying gait transitions. We studied the kinematics of the actual transition from trot to canter in miniature horses. The kinema...
Maximum permissible load weight of a Taishuh pony at a trot. The aim of this study was to determine the loading capacity of a trotting Taishuh pony by gait analysis using a motion analysis system. Seven Taishuh Ponies (5 mares and 2 geldings) and their rider were fitted with a marker (70 mm in diameter placed on their chest) and recorded by 2 high-resolution digital DVD cameras (at a sampling frequency of 60 Hz) as they were trotting along a straight course. Each horse performed 7 tests: 1 test with a loaded weight of 70 kg, 5 tests with random loaded weights between 80 kg and 120 kg, and a final test with a loaded weight of 70 kg again. Three-dimension...
Seasonal changes of total body water and water intake in Shetland ponies measured by an isotope dilution technique. Water is an essential nutrient necessary to support life, and adequate water supply is crucial for animal survival and productivity. The present study was designed to determine seasonal changes in the water metabolism of horses under outdoor conditions. Total body water (TBW) and total water intake (TWI) of 10 adult Shetland pony mares were estimated at monthly intervals for 14 mo by using the deuterium dilution technique. During the last 4 mo, 5 ponies were fed restrictively to simulate natural feed shortage in winter, and 5 ponies served as controls. The TBW (kg) was closely related to body ...
Accelerometric comparison of the locomotor pattern of horses sedated with xylazine hydrochloride, detomidine hydrochloride, or romifidine hydrochloride. To evaluate the duration of effects on movement patterns of horses after sedation with equipotent doses of xylazine hydrochloride, detomidine hydrochloride, or romifidine hydrochloride and determine whether accelerometry can be used to quantify differences among drug treatments. Methods: 6 healthy horses. Methods: Each horse was injected IV with saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (10 mL), xylazine diluted in saline solution (0.5 mg/kg), detomidine diluted in saline solution (0.01 mg/kg), or romifidine diluted in saline solution (0.04 mg/kg) in random order. A triaxial accelerometric device was used f...
Helical sub-structures in energy-storing tendons provide a possible mechanism for efficient energy storage and return. The predominant function of tendons is to position the limb during locomotion. Specific tendons also act as energy stores. Energy-storing (ES) tendons are prone to injury, the incidence of which increases with age. This is likely related to their function; ES tendons are exposed to higher strains and require a greater ability to recoil than positional tendons. The specialized properties of ES tendons are thought to be achieved through structural and compositional differences. However, little is known about structure-function relationships in tendons. This study uses fascicles from the equine s...
Stress modulates instrumental learning performances in horses (Equus caballus) in interaction with temperament. The present study investigates how the temperament of the animal affects the influence of acute stress on the acquisition and reacquisition processes of a learning task. After temperament was assessed, horses were subjected to a stressor before or after the acquisition session of an instrumental task. Eight days later, horses were subjected to a reacquisition session without any stressor. Stress before acquisition tended to enhance the number of successes at the beginning of the acquisition session. Eight days later, during the reacquisition session, contrary to non-stressed animals, horses st...
The effect of trotting speed on the evaluation of subtle lameness in horses. Equine lameness is a significant and challenging part of a veterinarian's workload, with subtle lameness inherently difficult to assess. This study investigated the influence of trotting speed on perceived and measured changes in movement asymmetry. Ten sound to mildly lame horses were trotted at a 'slow', 'preferred' and 'fast' speed on a hard surface, both on a straight line and in a circle on left and right reins. Video recordings of the horses were visually assessed by six experienced equine clinicians. Vertical movement of head, withers and pelvis was derived from inertial sensor data and...
Horse-like walking, trotting, and galloping derived from kinematic Motion Primitives (kMPs) and their application to walk/trot transitions in a compliant quadruped robot. This manuscript proposes a method to directly transfer the features of horse walking, trotting, and galloping to a quadruped robot, with the aim of creating a much more natural (horse-like) locomotion profile. A principal component analysis on horse joint trajectories shows that walk, trot, and gallop can be described by a set of four kinematic Motion Primitives (kMPs). These kMPs are used to generate valid, stable gaits that are tested on a compliant quadruped robot. Tests on the effects of gait frequency scaling as follows: results indicate a speed optimal walking frequency around 3.4 Hz, an...
The mechanical consequences of load bearing in the equine third metacarpal across speed and gait: the nonuniform distributions of normal strain, shear strain, and strain energy density. Distributions of normal strain, shear strain, and strain energy density (SED) were determined across the midshaft of the third metacarpal (MCIII, or cannon bone) of 3 adult thoroughbred horses as a function of speed and gait. A complete characterization of the mechanical demands of the bone made through the stride and from mild through the extremes of locomotion was possible by using three 3-element rosette strain gauges bonded at the diaphyseal midshaft of the MCIII and evaluating the strain output with beam theory and finite element analysis. Mean ± sd values of normal strain, shear strain,...
