Mules arena distinct equine species with unique physiological and behavioral characteristics. Horses, belonging to the species Equus ferus caballus, are domesticated animals known for their speed, strength, and versatility in various roles, including riding, racing, and work. Mules, on the other hand, are hybrid animals resulting from the crossbreeding of a male donkey (jack) and a female horse (mare). They inherit traits from both parents, often exhibiting the endurance and hardiness of donkeys combined with the size and strength of horses. Mules are typically sterile due to their hybrid nature, possessing 63 chromosomes, an intermediate number between horses and donkeys. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the genetic, anatomical, and behavioral differences between mules and horses, as well as the mule's role in agriculture, transportation, and recreation.
Brosnahan MM.The genus Equus is made up of donkeys, horses, and zebras. Despite significant variation in chromosome number across these species, interspecies breeding results in healthy, although infertile, hybrid offspring. Most notable among these are the horse-donkey hybrids, the mule and hinny. Donkeys presently are used for everything from companion animals to beasts of burden. Although closely related from an evolutionary standpoint, differences in anatomy and physiology preclude the assumption that they can be treated identically to the domestic horse. Veterinarians should be aware of these differen...
Camargo CE, Rechsteiner SF, Macan RC, Kozicki LE, Gastal MO, Gastal EL.The aim of this study was to compare the embryonic and early fetal development of horse embryos between recipient mules and mares from day 10-60 of pregnancy, in addition to hormonal (eCG and progesterone), ovarian, and uterine characteristics for approximately 4 months. Embryo donor mares (n = 5) and two groups of recipients (acyclic mules, n = 7; cyclic mares, n = 7) were used. Donor mares were monitored daily by transrectal ultrasonography and inseminated using fresh semen. Cyclic recipient mares were synchronized with the donor's ovulation using PGF2α and deslorelin acetate. M...
Hybridization has been widely practiced in plant and animal breeding as a means to enhance the quality and fitness of the organisms. In domestic equids, this hybrid vigor takes the form of improved physical and physiological characteristics, notably for strength or endurance. Because the offspring of horse and donkey is generally sterile, this widely recognized vigor is expressed in the first generation (F1). However, in the absence of recombination between the two parental genomes, F1 hybrids can be expected to be phenotypically intermediate between their parents which could potentially restr...
Matthews N, van Loon JPAM.The number of donkeys in the world may not be increasing but awareness of their use and concern for welfare and pain recognition and treatment are receiving increasing veterinary interest. Therefore, accurate information about anesthesia and analgesia in donkeys and mules is important to more equine practitioners. This review highlights the current knowledge on various anesthetic and analgesic approaches in donkey and mules. The authors emphasize that there is still much information that is not available about donkeys and mules; in many circumstances, the clinician must use available equine in...
Mendoza FJ, Perez-Ecija A, Toribio RE.Donkeys and mules show several pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic idiosyncrasies that have to be fully considered by any clinician dealing with these species. Because they possess an increased metabolic rate and cellular water content compared with horses, higher doses (or shorter dosing intervals) are usually recommended for those drugs where pharmacologic studies have been performed. Nonetheless, owing to the lack of species-specific information, this assumption cannot be arbitrarily applied. Thus, when a drug protocol published for horses is extrapolated to a donkey or a mule, a close moni...
Thiemann AK, Sullivan RJE.A review of common gastrointestinal disorders of donkeys and mules is presented. Clinically relevant aspects of donkey behavior, anatomy, and physiology are highlighted. Diagnosis, management, and treatment of conditions affecting the gastrointestinal tract from stomach to rectum, including liver and pancreas, are discussed.
Thiemann AK, Poore LA.This article provides a review of hoof anatomy and care in donkeys and mules. Hoof disease is a major cause of poor welfare and mortality globally. Problems associated with hoof disease are discussed in the context of behavior, diet, treatment, and prevention. The most common conditions encountered are discussed, including laminitis, the overgrown unbalanced hoof, white line disease, flexural deformities, and other significant issues. Differences between donkey and horse hoof anatomy are described.
Poirier M, Smith OE, Therrien J, Rigoglio NN, Miglino MA, Silva LA, Meirelles FV, Smith LC.Cell reprogramming by somatic cell nuclear transfer and in induced pluripotent stem cells is associated with epigenetic modifications that are often incompatible with embryonic development and differentiation. For instance, aberrant DNA methylation patterns of the differentially methylated region and biallelic expression of H19-/IGF2-imprinted gene locus have been associated with abnormal growth of fetuses and placenta in several mammalian species. However, cloned horses are born with normal sizes and with no apparent placental anomalies, suggesting that H19/IGF2 imprinting may be epigenetical...
Azmi K, Al-Jawabreh A, Abdeen Z.Theileria and Babesia are intracellular protozoan parasites infecting a wide range of animals. In Palestine, there is limited information on the prevalence of Theileria and Babesia spp. in livestock. We used PCR of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene followed by DNA sequencing to detect and identify parasite DNA in blood samples from sheep (n = 49), goats (n = 48), horses (n = 40), camels (n = 34), donkeys (n = 28) and mules (n = 2) from four districts of Palestine. DNA of T. ovis and T. equi was detected in 19 and 2 ovine blood samples, respectively. None of the camels, donkeys...
The proteins galectin-1 and Progesterone Induced Blocking Factor (PIBF) are present on human and murine trophoblast and are thought to influence both immunomodulation and trophoblast invasion. In equids, the invasive component of the placenta, the endometrial cups, stimulate maternal cell-mediated and humoral immune responses. It was therefore of interest to know if galectin-1 or PIBF could be immunolocalised to the invasive and/or non-invasive components of the equine placenta. Horse and mule (♀ horse X ♂ donkey) embryos and placental tissues between Days 12 and 124 of gestation were stai...
McLean A, Varnum A, Ali A, Heleski C, Navas González FJ.Mules and hinnies are the hybrids between donkeys (Equus asinus) and horses (Equus caballus). For centuries, mankind has used them for agrarian purposes, the military, or recreation. Contrasting literature with behavioral observations, we seek a better behavioral understanding andthus comprehensive solutions for their welfare enhancement. Over the past 6 years, we have assessed physical and behavioral welfare in over 900 mules by surveying owners from Egypt, Peru, Portugal, Spain, Mexico, and the U.S. These mules participated in shows, brick kiln work, cart-pulling, packing, tourism, and cattl...
Kay G, Tligui N, Semmate N, Azrib R, González FJN, Brizgys L, McLean A.Serum amyloid A (SAA) is an acute phase protein and α-globulin that is produced in the liver in response to inflammatory cytokines. Considered a major acute phase protein in most domestic species, its concentrations rapidly decrease after resolution of inflammation, making SAA measurement a useful tool for monitoring the course of inflammation in an individual animal. The objective of this study was to compare SAA values in working equids including mules, donkeys and horses as well as values for different diseases at various times of the year. Samples were collected from 77 equids; 13 mules, ...
Munhoz AD, Souza MA, Costa SCL, Freitas JS, Silva AND, Lacerda LC, Cruz RDS, Albuquerque GR, Pereira MJS.The aim of this study was to determine the frequency and factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii in naturally infected equids in northeastern Brazil. Serum samples from 569 equids (528 horses, 8 mules and 33 donkeys) were subjected to the indirect fluorescent antibody test. Generalized linear models were used to evaluate associated factors. Among the 569 animals sampled, 118 (30.6%) living in rural areas and 14 (26.42%) in urban areas were seropositive (p>0.05). Seropositive animals were observed on 95% of the farms and in all the municipalities. Donkeys/mules as the host, presence of dom...
Gorenberg EB, Johnson AL, Magdesian KG, Bertin FR, Costa LRR, Theelen MJP, Durward-Akhurst SA, Cruz Villagrán C, Carslake H, Frank N, Tomlinson JE.Primary hyperparathyroidism is uncommon in equids. Objective: To describe the diagnostic findings and efficacy of treatment in equids with primary hyperparathyroidism. Methods: Retrospective case series describing 16 horses and one mule. Methods: Cases were identified by retrospective review of records at Cornell University and via an ACVIM listserv query. Inclusion criteria were an equid with hypercalcemia, normal renal function and high parathyroid hormone (PTH) or histopathological diagnosis of a parathyroid adenoma. Equids with normal PTH and PTH-related protein (PTHrP) in the face of hype...
Boakari YL, Alonso MA, Riccio AV, Fernandes CB.In equine management, it is important to predict the approximate foaling date of mares to monitor parturition and allow early identification and intervention of problems during the perinatal period. There are no studies comparing accurate gestational length (GL) when mares are carrying mule foals and no controlled comparisons between GL of mares pregnant with equine or mule foals. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to compare GL of mares pregnant with equine or mule foals and establish normal reference values for GL of mares pregnant with male and female mules. Gestational length of ...
Costa SCL, Freitas JS, Silva AND, Lacerda LC, Cruz RDS, Carvalho FS, Pereira MJS, Munhoz AD.The aim of this study was to determine the frequency and factors associated to Babesia caballi, Theileria equi and Trypanosoma evansi in naturally infected equids from the northeast Brazil. Blood samples from 569 equids (528 horses, 8 mules, and 33 donkeys) were collected and tested for the presence of DNA of each of these protozoan parasites by PCR. Generalized linear models were used to evaluate risk factors associated with the infection. The frequency of T. equi infection was 83.5% (475/569) - 84.3% in horses, and 73.2% in donkeys and mules. The results of the final model indicated that age...
Katzman SA, Spriet M, Galuppo LD.OBJECTIVE To describe the use of CT in the diagnosis of and presurgical planning for equids with keratomas treated by hoof wall resection and determine postoperative complications and outcome. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 29 horses and 3 mules with keratomas treated by partial or complete hoof wall resection following CT imaging of the distal portion of the affected extremity from 2005 through 2016. PROCEDURES For each equid, physical examination and lameness evaluation were performed, followed by imaging of the distal portion of the affected extremity. A tentative diagnosis of ke...
Naves JHFF, Oliveira FG, Bicalho JM, Santos PS, Machado-de-Ávila RA, Chavez-Olortegui C, Leite RC, Reis JKP.Equine infectious anemia (EIA) is a disease caused by a Lentivirus that is currently controlled exclusively by identification of seropositive animals. In most countries, including Brazil, the official diagnostic test for EIA is the agar gel immunodiffusion test (AGID). Although this assay has a high specificity it can produce false negative reactions or equivocal results due to weak precipitation lines, especially in samples from donkeys, mules or newly infected equids. In this pioneering study, it was used overlapping synthetic peptide pools to map and identify a consensus, widely recognised ...
Rigoglio NN, Matias GSS, Miglino MA, Mess AM, Jacob JCF, Smith LC.Hybrids between species are often infertile and extremely rare among mammals. Mules, i.e. crossing between the horse and the donkey, on the other hand are very common in agricultural and leisure practices due to their enhanced post-natal physical characteristics that is believed to occur for outbreeding or hybrid vigor. Since no reports are availableon the effects of hybrid vigor during early development, this study focused on characterizing the intrauterine development of mule conceptuses during critical embryo-to-fetus transition period. Nine embryos and fetuses of early gestation, obtained ...
Sekhar V, Wong E, Elhassan HA, Singh N.Mules and other equine species have been used in warfare for thousands of years to transport goods and supplies. Mules are known for 'braying', which is disadvantageous in warfare operations. This article explores the fascinating development of surgical techniques to stop military mules from braying, with particular emphasis on the key role played by the otolaryngologist Arthur James Moffett in devoicing the mules of the second Chindit expedition of World War II. Methods: The PubMed database (1900-2017) and Google search engine were used to identify articles related to devoicing mules in the m...
Françoso R, Riccio AV, Fernandes CB, Alonso MA, Belli CB.Equine piroplasmosis, disease globally responsible for significant economic losses, is caused by the transmission of the hemoprotozoa Theileria equi and Babesia caballi by ticks. Transplacental transmission has been reported previously in horses, which is not the case for mules´ foals. The present study investigated, by Real Time-PCR (RT-PCR), the presence of both Theileria equi and Babesia caballi in newborn mules before the ingestion of colostrum. Blood samples of 18 mares and their respective mules´ foals were collected and analyzed by RT-PCR. Only one mare was positive for B. caballi. In...
Saadi, A, Tavassoli, M, Dalir-Naghadeh, B, Samiei A.Dictyocaulus arnfieldi is a lungworm commonly found in equids; however, relatively little is known about it. The aim of the present study was to establish the prevalence of equine lungworms in naturally-infected working and sporting horses, donkeys and mules in rural areas of Urmia, northwest Iran. The fecal samples were collected from 299 working horses, 57 sporting horses, 66 donkeys and 37 mules during the period March 2014 to June 2016. The collected fecal samples were processed within 48 hours following rectal sampling. The larval count/g (LPG) of feces was determined using the Baermann t...
Tedla M, Abichu B.A cross sectional study was conducted in Jimma town from October 2010 to March 2011 with the objective of determining the status of intestinal nematode parasites of equids, and the association of different variables with infection rate. To address this, a total of 400 equids; donkeys (n = 29), horses (n = 317) and mules (n = 54) were used in this study and based on the coprological examination to identify parasite eggs, three species of nematodes were identified with an overall prevalence of 72.25%. A prevalence of 63.25%, 16.50%, 4.25%, and 10.75% were identified for Strongyles, ,...
Nazir MM, Ayaz MM, Ahmed AN, Rasheed I, Faraz A, Akram Q, Akhtar S, Maqbool A, Tabassum S, Zheng Y, Lindsay DS.Equine hosts suffer from neurological disease, congenital infection, and reproductive problems associated with Neospora spp. infection. We conducted a cross sectional study using sera from 631 equids (324 horses, 218 donkeys and 89 mules) from the southern region of Punjab province, Pakistan to determine the prevalence of antibodies against Neospora spp. in this diverse group of equines. Fisk factors associated with seropositivity were evaluated statistically based on equine type, breed, age, husbandry, breeding methods, and reproductive history. Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora spp. was d...
Janečka JE, Davis BW, Ghosh S, Paria N, Das PJ, Orlando L, Schubert M, Nielsen MK, Stout TAE, Brashear W, Li G, Johnson CD, Metz RP, Zadjali AMA....Dynamic evolutionary processes and complex structure make the Y chromosome among the most diverse and least understood regions in mammalian genomes. Here, we present an annotated assembly of the male specific region of the horse Y chromosome (eMSY), representing the first comprehensive Y assembly in odd-toed ungulates. The eMSY comprises single-copy, equine specific multi-copy, PAR transposed, and novel ampliconic sequence classes. The eMSY gene density approaches that of autosomes with the highest number of retained X-Y gametologs recorded in eutherians, in addition to novel Y-born and transp...
García-Bocanegra I, Rivero A, Caballero-Gómez J, López-López P, Cano-Terriza D, Frías M, Jiménez-Ruiz S, Risalde MA, Gómez-Villamandos JC....Hepatitis E (HE) is an important emerging disease in European countries. To analyse the role of equids as potential reservoirs for HE virus (HEV), we determined the prevalence of HEV infection in 861 equines from 464 herds in Spain. HEV RNA in serum was detected in 0.4% (3/692) of horses, 1.2% (1/86) of donkeys and 3.6% (3/83) of mules. Phylogenetic analysis identified the zoonotic genotype 3 as being closely related to viral human and swine strains. In this first report on HEV in equids in Europe, we confirm the susceptibility of horses, donkeys and mules to HEV infection. The low prevalence ...
Costa PWLD, Vilela VLR, Feitosa TF.The objective of this study was to determine the parasitological profiles of traction equids from the semi-arid climate of Paraíba (PB) State. We analyzed 96 equids that performed traction work, with no defined breed, males and females, and all older than 24 months. Among the analyzed animals, 51% were donkeys, 41.7% mules, and 7.3% horses. Fecal material and blood were collected for parasitological examination and to determine the packed cell volume (PCV), respectively. The samples were sent to the Veterinary Parasitology Laboratory, Veterinary Hospital - IFPB, Sousa-PB campus, and epidemiol...
Sumbria D, Singla LD, Kaur P.In the Indian sub-continent, equine piroplasmosis (EP) is an imperative tick-borne disease of equids predominately caused by obligatory intra-erythrocytic protozoa Theileria equi. Present exploration is the first epidemiological survey report based on Indirect Immunofluorescence Antibody test (IFAT). A total of 120 equines (98 horses and 22 donkeys/mules) from five districts of two main agro-climatic zones of Punjab were screened. The overall prevalence was 58.33%, with western plane zone at higher infection risk for T. equi (74.50%, OR = 7.45, 95% CI = 62.24-85.76); followed by wester...
Corrales-Hernández A, Mota-Rojas D, Guerrero-Legarreta I, Roldan-Santiago P, Rodríguez-Salinas S, Yáñez-Pizaña A, de la Cruz L....The horse welfare at markets includes fatigue, fear, fasting, dehydration and injuries. However, the scientific literature contains no readily-available information on the physiology responses of equids sold in livestock markets. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of holding in livestock markets on gas exchange, the acid-base balance, energy metabolism, and the mineral and water balance in 4 types of horses (), donkeys () and mules (( × ). To this end, a total of 1,438 equine were utilized, after classification into six groups, as follows: mules, donkeys, culled...
Pusterla N, Kass PH, Mapes S, Wademan C, Akana N, Barnett C, MacKenzie C, Vaala W.Recent surveillance studies for equine respiratory viruses have shown that equine influenza virus (EIV) continues to be a prevalent respiratory virus of equids throughout the United States and Europe. Objective: To gain a better understanding of the prevalence and epidemiology of EIV shed by horses, mules and donkeys in the United States from March 2010 to November 2013. Methods: 2,605 equids. Methods: Nasal secretions from index cases with acute onset of respiratory disease were tested by qPCR for EIV. Multilevel logistic regression was used to model the association between EIV status and pre...
Lagos J, Rojas M, Rodrigues JB, Tadich T.Mules are essential for pack work in mountainous areas, but there is a lack of research on this species. This study intends to assess the perceptions, attitudes, empathy and pain perception of soldiers about mules, to understand the type of human-mule relationship. For this, a survey was applied with closed-ended questions where the empathy and pain perception tools were included and later analyzed through correlations. Open-ended questions were analyzed through text mining. A total of 73 soldiers were surveyed. They had a wide range of ages and years of experience working with equids. Signifi...
Abrahão JS, de Souza Trindade G, Pereira-Oliveira G, de Oliveira Figueiredo P, Costa G, Moreira Franco-Luiz AP, Lopes Assis F, Bretas de Oliveira D....In August 2014, an outbreak of oral exanthematous disease in equids was reported in Brazil, affecting 11 donkeys and 3 mules. Objective: To investigate if Vaccinia virus (VACV) was the aetiological agent in this outbreak. Methods: Investigation of clinical cases using serological, molecular and phylogenetic approaches. Methods: To analyse the presence of neutralising antibodies against VACV, samples were submitted in triplicate to a plaque-reduction neutralisation test (PRNT ). On the basis of previous studies which detected VACV DNA in sera, we submitted extracted DNA samples to different pol...
Afridi MJK, Mian AH, Saqib M, Abbas G, Ali J, Mansoor MK, Sial AUR, Rasheed I, Hussain MH. is a tick borne protozoan parasite which causes piroplasmosis among equines worldwide. The present study was aimed to determine seroprevalence of in donkeys, horses, and mules from two equine populated districts (Peshawar and Charsadda) of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Pakistan. Methods: A total of 393 equine (195 horses, 194 donkeys and 4 mules) serum samples were collected from five and four randomly selected localities in Charsadda (n = 193) and Peshawar (n = 200), respectively. The presence of antibodies to was determined using a commercially available competitive enzyme-linked immunosorben...
Chandley AC, Short RV, Allen WR.A detailed investigation of testicular meiosis in a mule, a hinny and a Przewalski horse/domestic horse hybrid were made. Abnormalities of pairing were observed in the mule and hinny in most germ cells at the pachytene stage of meiotic prophase, and spermatogenesis was alsmot totally arrested. A few mature spermatozoa were recovered from the ejaculate and epididymal flushings of the hinny. The Przewalski horse/domestic horse hybrid was fertile and showed normal spermatogenesis. Chromosome banding studies showed a close homology between the karyotypes of the Prezwalski horse (Equus przewalskii,...
Thiemann AK, Sullivan RJE.A review of common gastrointestinal disorders of donkeys and mules is presented. Clinically relevant aspects of donkey behavior, anatomy, and physiology are highlighted. Diagnosis, management, and treatment of conditions affecting the gastrointestinal tract from stomach to rectum, including liver and pancreas, are discussed.
Baker JM, Bamford AI, Antczak DF.Maternal immune recognition of the developing conceptus in equine pregnancy is characterized by the strongest and most consistent alloantibody response described in any species, a response directed almost exclusively against paternal MHC class I Ags. This work investigated the cellular immune response to paternal MHC Ags in pregnant and nonpregnant horses and donkeys, and in horses carrying interspecies hybrid mule conceptuses. We observed profound decreases in classical, MHC-restricted, CTL activity to allogeneic paternal cells in peripheral blood lymphocytes from both horse mares and donkey ...
Seyoum Z, Tesfaye M, Derso S.Prevalence, intensity and risk factors of major gastrointestinal nematode infestation in equines were studied through a cross-sectional survey in 384 equids from October 2013 to April 2014 in and around Shashemane, southern Ethiopia. Three hundred and fifteen equids (82 %) were demonstrated harbouring one or more gastrointestinal (GIT) nematodes using the faecal flotation technique. The prevalence of GIT nematode infestation was 73.4, 85 and 86.5 % for horses, mules and donkeys, respectively. The identified nematodes were strongyle type (73.4 %), Parascaris equorum (21.4 %) and Oxyuris equ...
Naves JHFF, Oliveira FG, Bicalho JM, Santos PS, Machado-de-Ávila RA, Chavez-Olortegui C, Leite RC, Reis JKP.Equine infectious anemia (EIA) is a disease caused by a Lentivirus that is currently controlled exclusively by identification of seropositive animals. In most countries, including Brazil, the official diagnostic test for EIA is the agar gel immunodiffusion test (AGID). Although this assay has a high specificity it can produce false negative reactions or equivocal results due to weak precipitation lines, especially in samples from donkeys, mules or newly infected equids. In this pioneering study, it was used overlapping synthetic peptide pools to map and identify a consensus, widely recognised ...
Valdéz-Cruz MP, Hernández-Gil M, Galindo-Rodríguez L, Alonso-Díaz MA.The east coast of Veracruz, Mexico, has an important equine population used for working in rural production systems. The objectives of this study were (1) to calculate the prevalence of tropical working equids (donkeys, mules and horses) infected with gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) and the GINs involved, and (2) to measure the body condition score (BCS) and haematological values for each working equid and its relationship with faecal worm egg count (EPG). One hundred and forty working equids were randomly selected from five different villages along the central coast of the state of Veracruz...
González JA, Vallejo JR.This review documents the wide and varied repertoire of traditional practices and remedies based on the use of domestic animals in Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) from the early 20th century to the present. Empirical practices, both ritual and magical, are recorded, and these EVM data are compared with those of other countries in the Mediterranean region and Latin America. The data collected here could form a scientific foundation for future inventories of local veterinary knowledge (LVK) and research addressing the discovery of new drugs for livestock and the validation of the effects....
Zhao CJ, Han GC, Qin YH, Wu Ch.A novel and brief method of differentiating among horse (Equus caballus) and donkey (Equus asinus) and their hybrids (mule, E. asinus x E. caballus and hinny, E. caballus x E. asinus) with combined analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial gene polymorphism (CANMGP) was reported in the present report. A nuclear gene, protamine P1 gene of donkey was sequenced and compared with the known horse sequence from GenBank while a published equid mitochondrial gene, cytochrome b gene of donkey was compared with that of horse. In each of the two genes, a fixed nucleotide substitution within an exon that coul...
Lloyd S, Soulsby EJ.This survey was performed to study the prevalence of infection with Onchocerca cervicalis in horses in the eastern United States. In the course of the survey, 121 horses, 1 mule and 1 donkey were examined. Microfilariae were recovered from 74 (61%) of the horses examined. All infected horses showed microfilariae of O cervicalis in the umbilical sample, 62 (84%) were infected in the eyelid and, in 36 (49%), microfilariae had invaded the eye. The mule was unifected and the donkey was infected with O cervicalis.
Allen PZ, Dalton EJ.Donkey IgGa was isolated in purified form from normal and immune donkey sera by column chromatography on DEAE-cellulose. Isolated donkey IgGa and mixtures of (IgGa+IgGb) were used as antigens to prepare rabbit reagents specific for equine IgGa or IgGb. Antibodies present in sera obtained from a single donkey at various times during the course of hyperimmunization with BSA were isolated by immuno-adsorption. The class or subclass of immunoglobulins present among isolated, donkey anti-BSA antibodies was determined by use of specific rabbit anti-equine immunoglobulin reagents. The homologues of h...
Ragle CA, Schneider RK.Eleven mares and four mules were ovariectomized by a ventral abdominal laparoscopic technique. This approach required tilting the operative table about 30 degrees elevating the pelvis to allow observation of the ovaries. A triangulation technique with a single laparoscopic portal and four instrument portals was used. The ovarian pedicles were ligated and the ovaries were removed through a single enlarged instrument portal. Females ranged in age from 5 months to 18 years. Mean operative time was 44 minutes (range 20 to 90 minutes); mean operative time of the last seven animals was 26 minutes. S...
Nazir MM, Ayaz MM, Ahmed AN, Rasheed I, Faraz A, Akram Q, Akhtar S, Maqbool A, Tabassum S, Zheng Y, Lindsay DS.Equine hosts suffer from neurological disease, congenital infection, and reproductive problems associated with Neospora spp. infection. We conducted a cross sectional study using sera from 631 equids (324 horses, 218 donkeys and 89 mules) from the southern region of Punjab province, Pakistan to determine the prevalence of antibodies against Neospora spp. in this diverse group of equines. Fisk factors associated with seropositivity were evaluated statistically based on equine type, breed, age, husbandry, breeding methods, and reproductive history. Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora spp. was d...
Françoso R, Riccio AV, Fernandes CB, Alonso MA, Belli CB.Equine piroplasmosis, disease globally responsible for significant economic losses, is caused by the transmission of the hemoprotozoa Theileria equi and Babesia caballi by ticks. Transplacental transmission has been reported previously in horses, which is not the case for mules´ foals. The present study investigated, by Real Time-PCR (RT-PCR), the presence of both Theileria equi and Babesia caballi in newborn mules before the ingestion of colostrum. Blood samples of 18 mares and their respective mules´ foals were collected and analyzed by RT-PCR. Only one mare was positive for B. caballi. In...
Costa SCL, Freitas JS, Silva AND, Lacerda LC, Cruz RDS, Carvalho FS, Pereira MJS, Munhoz AD.The aim of this study was to determine the frequency and factors associated to Babesia caballi, Theileria equi and Trypanosoma evansi in naturally infected equids from the northeast Brazil. Blood samples from 569 equids (528 horses, 8 mules, and 33 donkeys) were collected and tested for the presence of DNA of each of these protozoan parasites by PCR. Generalized linear models were used to evaluate risk factors associated with the infection. The frequency of T. equi infection was 83.5% (475/569) - 84.3% in horses, and 73.2% in donkeys and mules. The results of the final model indicated that age...
Dorneles EMS, Santana JA, Costa ACTRB, Junqueira DG, Heinemann MB, Lage AP.Brucellosis in equines, including horses, donkeys, and mules, is characterized by abscesses in tendons, bursae, and joints. Reproductive disorders, which are common in other animals, are rare in both males and females. Joint breeding of horses, cattle, and pigs was found as the main risk factor for equine brucellosis, with the transmission from equines to cattle or among equines possible, although unlikely. Hence, evaluation of the disease in equines can be considered an indirect indicator of the effectiveness of brucellosis control measures employed for other domestic species. Generally, the ...
Théon AP, Pascoe JR, Meagher DM.Twenty-seven horses (and 1 mule) with 32 histologically confirmed cutaneous tumors were studied to evaluate the effects of intratumoral injection of cisplatin initiated at the time of surgery. As a result of surgery, 9 of the wounds were closed primarily (5 sarcoids, 4 carcinomas) and 23 were left open to granulate (16 sarcoids, 6 carcinomas, 1 hamartoma). Chemotherapy consisted of 4 treatment sessions of intratumoral injection of cisplatin in purified sesame oil at 2-week intervals. The first treatment session was administered intraoperatively. A controlled-release formulation of cisplatin in...
Duran MC, Dumrath CAC, Bartmann CP, Medina Torres CE, Moschos A, Goehring LS.Serum amyloid A (SAA) is a sensitive acute-phase response (APR) marker in equids. Prominent APRs with elevations of SAA concentrations ([SAA]) have been reported after vaccination. The authors hypothesized that vaccination with an inactivated EHV-1/-4 vaccine would cause increase in [SAA] and antibody responses and that higher [SAA] would be positively correlated with the antibody titer in both equids. Twelve Haflinger horses and 12 mules were included in this longitudinal prospective study. All horses and mules were vaccinated with a commercially available EHV-1/-4 vaccine. Blood was sampled ...
Matto TN, Bharkad GP, Bhat SA.A total of 1,304 faecal samples of different species of equids were examined for presence of helminthic eggs from five different centres in Mumbai and Pune regions of Maharashtra state from October 2011 to June 2012. Overall prevalence of helminthic infestation was found to be 20.63 % with higher rate of occurrence in monsoon (31.29 %) followed by winter (20.40 %) and summer (14.23 %). Four species of nematodes viz. strongyles (10.81 %), Strongyloides westeri (13.19 %), Parascaris equorum (0.23 %) and Dictyocaulus arnfieldi (0.23 %); two species of trematodes viz. amphistomes (1.38 %)...
Schoenbaum MA, Hall SM, Glock RD, Grant K, Jenny AL, Schiefer TJ, Sciglibaglio P, Whitlock RH.A USDA Early Response Team investigated deaths of several horses and a mule in northern Arizona at the request of local animal health officials. Thirteen animals (12 horses and 1 mule) housed at 5 facilities in a 7.4 square mile area died between August 1998 and January 1999. Clinical signs consisted of muscular weakness that rapidly progressed to lateral recumbency. Ten animals had paresis of the tongue, throat, or lips. Affected animals appeared alert and were interested in eating and drinking, even while recumbent. All 13 animals were euthanatized. Clostridium botulinum type C was isolated ...
Corrales-Hernández A, Mota-Rojas D, Guerrero-Legarreta I, Roldan-Santiago P, Rodríguez-Salinas S, Yáñez-Pizaña A, de la Cruz L....The horse welfare at markets includes fatigue, fear, fasting, dehydration and injuries. However, the scientific literature contains no readily-available information on the physiology responses of equids sold in livestock markets. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of holding in livestock markets on gas exchange, the acid-base balance, energy metabolism, and the mineral and water balance in 4 types of horses (), donkeys () and mules (( × ). To this end, a total of 1,438 equine were utilized, after classification into six groups, as follows: mules, donkeys, culled...
Krecek RC, Guthrie AJ.Cyathostomes are common nematode parasites of horses, donkeys and mules in developing countries. These equids usually work on a daily basis and this includes transportation of goods, crops and people. Stress, associated with work, and limited nutrition often result in a loss of condition, and cyathostomid nematodes may, then, cause clinical disease. Because anthelmintics are not always accessible or affordable in many parts of Africa, or there may be anthelmintic resistance to current remedies, management practices are often used as an adjunct to chemotherapy. This paper discusses some current...
Petrizzi L, Guerri G, Straticò P, Cuomo A, Vullo C, De Amicis I, Robbe D, Varasano V.Mules are hybrids bred from the mating of a jack donkey and a horse mare, known for their strength and resistance and still used to work in agriculture. Although they have been for long considered sterile, evidence of estrus cycle has been demonstrated together with abnormal behavior related to ovarian activity. In this study, a bilateral standing laparoscopic ovariectomy technique using the LigaSure technology was applied in 10 mare mules for treating unwanted behavioral patterns. The technique was effectively performed on these animals avoiding the risk of general anesthesia, and the use of ...
Zhang J, Zhao L, Fu Y, Liu F, Wang Z, Li Y, Zhao G, Sun W, Wu B, Song Y, Li S, Hao C, Wuyun B, Wu R, Liu M, Cao G, Nashun B, Surani MA, Sun Q, Bao S....The mule is the interspecific hybrid of horse and donkey and has hybrid vigor in muscular endurance, disease resistance, and longevity over its parents. Here, we examined adult fibroblasts of mule (MAFs) compared with the cells from their parents (donkey adult fibroblasts and horse adult fibroblasts) (each species has repeated three independent individuals) in proliferation, apoptosis, and glycolysis and found significant differences. We subsequently derived mule, donkey, and horse doxycycline (Dox)-independent induced pluripotent stem cells (miPSCs, diPSCs, and hiPSCs) from three independent ...
