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Topic:Risk Factors
Risk factors in horses refer to variables or conditions that increase the likelihood of disease, injury, or other adverse health outcomes in equine populations. These factors can be intrinsic, such as age, breed, and genetic predisposition, or extrinsic, including environmental conditions, management practices, and exposure to infectious agents. Understanding risk factors is important for developing preventive strategies and improving health management in horses. This page aggregates peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the identification, assessment, and mitigation of risk factors in equine health, with the aim of enhancing disease prevention and promoting overall well-being in horses.
Equine catechol estrogen 4-hydroxyequilenin is a more potent inhibitor of the variant form of catechol-O-methyltransferase. Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) plays an important role in the inactivation of biologically active and toxic catechols. It has been shown that COMT is genetically polymorphic with a wild-type and variant form where a valine has been substituted with a methionine. Several, but not all, epidemiological studies have shown that women, homozygous with the variant form, have an increased risk of developing breast cancer. Previously, we showed that 4-hydroxyequilenin (4-OHEN), a cytotoxic/genotoxic equine catechol estrogen metabolite, is both a substrate of COMT and an irreversible inhibitor of t...
Field trial of the efficacy of a combination of ivermectin and praziquantel in horses infected with roundworms and tapeworms. Two hundred and thirty-three horses were screened for the presence of roundworms by faecal egg counts (FECs) and for tapeworms by an ELISA specific for antibodies to the immunodominant 12 kDa and 13 kDa tapeworms antigen. The 62 horses were found to be infected with both parasites were treated with a combination of 0.2 mg/kg ivermectin and 1.5 mg/kg praziquantel. The treatment suppressed the median FEC of the horses to zero for 10 weeks and significantly reduced their anti-12/13 kDa antibody levels. The estimated risk of tapeworm-associated colic in these horses was halved by 12 weeks after th...
Equine welfare: risk of horses falling in the Grand National. As in other competitive sports, the famous Grand National steeplechase, which is held at Aintree in the United Kingdom and is watched by 600 million people worldwide, sometimes results in injury. By analysing data from the past 15 Grand National races (consisting of 560 starts by horses), we are able to identify several factors that are significantly associated with failure to complete the race: no previous experience of the course and its unique obstacles, unfavourable ground conditions (too soft or too hard), a large number of runners, and the length of the odds ('starting price'). We also f...
Why are certain premises at increased risk of equine grass sickness? A matched case-control study. Equine grass sickness (EGS) occurs repeatedly on certain premises over time. Few studies have sought, or identified, the determinants of this phenomenon in order to inform advice on disease prevention strategies. Objective: Premises-level risk factors are important determinants of whether EGS occurs. Methods: A matched case-control study was undertaken. Sixty premises giving rise to one or more histologically confirmed case of EGS and 120 time-matched control premises were sampled. Data were collected on pasture management, soil nutrient content, pasture nutrient content and local weather cond...
Equine grass sickness is associated with low antibody levels to Clostridium botulinum: a matched case-control study. Equine grass sickness is a high mortality disease which, despite many years of investigation, is of unknown aetiology. Recent findings indicating that the disease is associated with Clostridium botulinum require support from an epidemiological study that recognises and controls for potential confounders, e.g. age, time of year and premises. Objective: EGS is associated with low antibody levels to C. botulinum antigens. Methods: A matched case-control study was conducted. Data were collected from 66 histologically confirmed cases of EGS and 132 premises-matched control horses. The probability o...
An epidemiological study of risk factors associated with the recurrence of equine grass sickness (dysautonomia) on previously affected premises. The reasons why equine grass sickness (EGS) recurs on premises are unknown and, consequently, practical methods for reducing the risk of recurrence are not available. Objective: To identify risk factors associated with recurrence of EGS on premises and to gain possible insights into the pathogenesis of the disease. Methods: Data on disease history and risk factors were collected by postal questionnaire from premises with EGS cases between 1st January 1997 and 31st December 2001. Data on variation in rates of recurrence of EGS for different risk factors were analysed using Poisson regression an...
Retained placenta in Friesian mares: incidence, and potential risk factors with special emphasis on gestational length. During the foaling seasons of 1999 and 2000, the incidence of retained placenta in 495 normal parturitions of 436 Friesian brood mares was studied. Retained placenta was defined as a failure to expel all fetal membranes within 3 h of the delivery of the foal. Furthermore, the sex of the foal, month of breeding, sire and dam's sire, age of the mare, and time of day of foaling, were studied as factors that might be associated with retained placenta in Friesian mares after normal foalings, and with gestational length. The analysis was carried out using marginal logistic regression, and mixed line...
Is isoflurane safer than halothane in equine anaesthesia? Results from a prospective multicentre randomised controlled trial. Approximately 1 in 100 horses suffer unexpectedly from anaesthetic-related death. Identification and use of the safest anaesthetic drugs should support this aim. Experimental evidence has suggested that isoflurane should be a safer maintenance agent in equine anaesthesia than halothane. Objective: The death rate would be reduced in horses being maintained with isoflurane compared to halothane. Methods: A multicentre randomised controlled trial was undertaken to compare the effects of isoflurane and halothane for maintenance of equine anaesthesia for all types of operation. Data were analysed f...
Prevention and treatment of thrombosis, phlebitis, and laminitis in horses with gastrointestinal diseases. Organ thrombosis and laminitis are life-threatening complications in horses with acute gastrointestinal disease, especially those diseases that cause disruption of the protective mucosal barrier. Prevention of these complications should be a high priority when treating horses with gastrointestinal diseases because even with proper and intensive treatments, laminitis or organ thrombosis may not be curative. Preventative therapy should include expedient and appropriate treatment of the primary disease, normalization of tissue perfusion and oxygenation, and inhibition of gut-derived toxins or the...
Agricultural tasks and injuries among Kentucky farm children: results of the Farm Family Health and Hazard Surveillance Project. This population-based study reports the prevalent agricultural tasks and the 1-year cumulative incidence of injuries in a sample of 999 children < or = 18 years old living on family farms in Kentucky. Methods: Data were collected in 1994 to 1995 for the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Farm Family Health and Hazard Surveillance Project. A random sample of farm children in 60 Kentucky counties was selected using a cross-sectional, two-stage cluster design. Respondents, primarily mothers, completed a 30-minute telephone interview about work-related tasks and injuries expe...
Foal-related risk factors associated with development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia on farms with endemic infection. To identify foal-related risk factors associated with development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia among foals on farms with endemic R. equi infection. Methods: Prospective case-control study. Methods: 220 foals at 2 equine breeding farms in Texas during a 2-year period. Methods: Information collected for each dam included age, time housed on the farm prior to parturition, whether there were any peripartum illnesses, parity, and health of previous foals. Information collected for each foal included breed, sex, gestational age, month and year of birth, location of birth, type of flooring and beddi...
Risk factors and prevalence of injuries in horses during various types of steeplechase races. To identify the types of injuries sustained by horses that competed in steeplechase races and determine the prevalence of and risk factors for those injuries. Methods: Prospective study. Methods: 2,680 horses that competed in various types of steeplechase races from 1996 through 2000. Methods: Data regarding races; environment; equipment problems; the number of horses that entered, started, and finished races; the number of riders that fell; and the number of horses that were slowed or stopped by the rider, ran off the course, fell, and sustained injuries or physical abnormalities during races...
Long-term outcome of equestrian injuries in children. To investigate the possible development of long-term disabilities arising from paediatric equestrian injuries. Methods: All patients, aged 17 years or younger, treated in a hospital setting because of an equestrian injury during a five-year period received a questionnaire. A reference population and healthy friends served as controls. Results: Four years post-injury, 41 of the 100 respondents still experienced disabilities following the injury. The median Injury Severity Score was 4. Absenteeism from school lasted 2 weeks, and from horse riding, 4 months. Compared to the reference population, ...
Analysis of risk factors for recurrent airway obstruction in North American horses: 1,444 cases (1990-1999). To identify risk factors for recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) among horses examined at veterinary teaching hospitals in North America. Methods: Retrospective case-control study. Methods: 1,444 horses with RAO and 1,444 control horses examined for other reasons. Methods: The Veterinary Medical Database was searched for records of horses in which RAO was diagnosed. A control group was identified by randomly selecting a horse with a diagnosis other than RAO that matched the institution and year of admission for each of the horses with RAO. Information obtained included hospital, admission year ...
Risk factors and prognostic variables for survival of foals with radiographic evidence of pulmonary disease. The medical records of 163 neonatal foals that had thoracic radiographs taken within 48 hours of admission to a referral hospital were reviewed. The objectives of this study were (1) to identify risk factors for the development of thoracic radiographic changes and (2) to identify prognostic indicators for survival in foals with radiographic evidence of pulmonary disease. Failure of transfer of passive immunity (IgG concentration < or = 400 mg/dL) was the only risk factor for radiographic evidence of respiratory disease identified by multivariate analysis. Hypoxemic patients (PaO2 1.7 mg/dL...
Factors affecting the severity of horse-related injuries. Horse riding and handling are uniquely dangerous. Knowledge of the risk factors of horse-related injuries is essential to prevent them. We aimed to define the factors that affect the severity of horse-related injuries and the length of hospital stay. A number of 231 patients (136 females and 95 males) with horse-related injuries were studied. A generalized linear model was used to test the effect of age, sex, cause of injury, complexity of the mechanism of injury, year, place of injury and profession of the injured, on the injury severity score (ISS) and the hospital stay. Fall from a horse wa...
Horse injuries and racing practices in National Hunt racehorses in the UK: the results of a prospective cohort study. A prospective cohort study was conducted on horses starting in hurdle and steeplechase races on six UK racecourses in 2000 and 2001. Trainers or carers were questioned on the horses' pre-race routine and observational data were collected in the stables and parade ring. Some practices were common to many starters, such as withholding food and water before racing whereas other practices, such as schooling frequency, were more variable. There was a total of 2879 starts and a total of 83 injuries or medical events (28.8/1000 starts). The commonest types of injury were tendon/suspensory injuries an...
Epidemiologic characteristics and management of polysaccharide storage myopathy in Quarter Horses. To characterize onset and clinical signs of polysaccharide storage myopathy (PSSM) in a well-defined population of affected Quarter Horses, identify risk factors for PSSM, determine compliance of owners to dietary and exercise recommendations, and evaluate the efficacy of dietary and exercise recommendations. Methods: 40 Quarter Horses with PSSM and 37 unaffected control horses. Methods: Owners of horses with PSSM completed a retrospective questionnaire concerning their horse's condition. Results: Between horses with PSSM and control horses, no significant differences were found in sex distrib...
Equine hepatic disease: the effect of patient- and case-specific variables on risk and prognosis. Liver disease is fairly common in horses and, although previous literature suggests that fatality rates are high, impressions gained from current clinical practice suggest that this is no longer the case. Objective: A case-control study was undertaken in 2 hospitals to investigate whether age, gender or breed type predisposed horses to developing hepatic disease, with the additional aim of determining whether these factors and disease category had any effect on outcome. Methods: Eighty-eight cases were identified by review of computerised archives at 2 hospitals. Three cases admitted immediate...
Male, female and management risk factors for non-return to service in Dutch mares. The "effect" of stallion, mare and management-related factors on the odds of pregnancy per cycle in the horse were identified and quantified from the breeding records of Dutch Warmblood (n=4491), Friesian (n=1467) and Shetland-pony mares (n=3267) mated either naturally or by artificial insemination to one of the 88 stallions between 1992 and 1996. A mare was considered to be pregnant when she did not return to oestrous within 28 days of the last insemination. For Dutch Warmblood horses, the percentage of mares that did not return for service within 28 days (NR28) varied between studfarms and r...
Case-control study of factors associated with fibrinous pericarditis among horses in central Kentucky during spring 2001. To identify factors significantly associated with an epidemic of fibrinous pericarditis during spring 2001 among horses in central Kentucky. Methods: Case-control study. Methods: 38 horses with fibrinous pericarditis and 30 control horses examined for other reasons. Methods: A questionnaire was developed to solicit information regarding a wide range of management practices and environmental exposures from farm owners or managers. Results: The following factors were found in bivariate analyses to be significantly associated with an increased risk of pericarditis: being from a farm with mares an...
Obesity and diet affect glucose dynamics and insulin sensitivity in Thoroughbred geldings. Insulin resistance is considered a risk factor in obesity, laminitis, exertional rhabdomyolysis, and osteochondrosis. The objective was to use the minimal model to estimate glucose effectiveness (Sg) and insulin sensitivity (Si) in nonobese to obese horses initially adapted to forage only, then adapted to forage plus supplements rich in starch and sugar (SS) or fiber and fat (FF). Ten Thoroughbred geldings, with BCS of 5 (nonobese), 6 (moderately obese), and 7 to 8 (obese), were adapted to pasture and hay, allocated to two groups, and fed SS or FF in a switch-back design with 8 wk of adaptatio...
Risk factors for fecal shedding of Salmonella from horses in a veterinary teaching hospital. Identification of risk factors for horses shedding Salmonella in their feces helps identify patients at-risk of infection and protect the overall population through heightened biosecurity. Fecal samples from 230 hospitalized horses were cultured for Salmonella spp. Historical data were collected on 21 putative risk factors and assessed for association with the risk of a horse being culture positive using forwards stepwise logistic regression. Salmonella was isolated from 13 horses--most commonly from either the first (n=5) or second (n=4) sample collected. Only presenting complaint (confounded...
A case control study of factors and infections associated with clinically apparent respiratory disease in UK Thoroughbred racehorses. A matched case control study was used to determine infections and other factors associated with clinically apparent respiratory disease in young racehorses in training in the UK. A total of 170 cases, defined as horses with sudden onset coughing, nasal discharge or pyrexia, were identified and matched to 632 non-affected controls by trainer and time period. Factors examined included age, sex, time since entry into the training yard, time since last race and different infections including tracheal and nasopharyngeal (NP) bacteria and viruses. Multivariable conditional logistic regression (CLR) ...
Pattern of equestrian injuries presenting to a Sydney teaching hospital. Equestrian activities are associated with a high rate of injury. Attempts to reduce the incidence and severity of injury require accurate characterization of risk factors and pattern of injury. The present study was performed to analyse the injuries seen at an Australian centre where a large number of equestrian injuries present. Methods: Data were collected prospectively over a 3 year period on all equestrian injuries presenting to the Prince of Wales -Hospital complex. These data were compared against and combined with retrospectively collected data over the preceding 3 years at the same cen...
Risk factors for atrial fibrillation during racing in slow-finishing horses. To determine prevalence of atrial fibrillation (AF) immediately after racing among racehorses that finished well behind the winners and examine potential risk factors for AF in these horses. Methods: Case-control study. Methods: 39,302 racehorses representing 404,090 race starts in races sanctioned by the Japan Racing Association between 1988 and 1997. Methods: Horses that finished > or = 4 (turf races) or 5 (dirt races) seconds behind the winner or that did not complete the race were examined for AF within 5 minutes after the race. Logistic regression and chi2 analyses were used to determine ...
California state Mosquito-Borne Virus Surveillance and Response Plan: a retrospective evaluation using conditional simulations. The California Mosquito-Borne Virus Surveillance and Response Plan recently was developed to provide a semi-quantitative means for assessing risk for western equine encephalomyelitis (WEE) or St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) viruses and to provide intervention guidelines for mosquito control and public health agencies during periods of heightened risk for human infection. West Nile virus recently has arrived in California, and the response plan also will provide a baseline for assessing the risk for human and equine infection with this virus. In the response plan, overall risk is calculated by ave...
Optimising vaccination strategies in equine influenza. A stochastic model of equine influenza (EI) is constructed to assess the risk of an outbreak in a Thoroughbred population at a typical flat race training yard. The model is parameterised using data from equine challenge experiments conducted by the Animal Health Trust (relating to the latent and infectious period of animals) and also published data on previous epidemics (to estimate the transmission rate for equine influenza). Using 89 ponies, an empirical relationship between pre-challenge antibody and the probability of becoming infectious is established using logistic regression. Changes in...
