Topic:Soft Tissue
Soft tissue in horses encompasses the non-bony structures that support and connect various parts of the body, including muscles, tendons, ligaments, and fascia. These tissues are essential for movement, stability, and overall musculoskeletal function. Injuries to soft tissue can result from trauma, overuse, or improper biomechanics, leading to conditions such as strains, sprains, and tears. Understanding the anatomy, healing processes, and rehabilitation strategies for soft tissue is important for managing equine health and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the structure, function, and treatment of soft tissue injuries in horses.
An innovative technique for displaying three dimensional radiographic anatomy of synovial structures in the equine distal limb. Radiography is the most commonly applied imaging modality in equine practice and forms an essential part of the diagnostic work-up of lame horses. Radiographic signs of musculoskeletal pathology are frequently localized at sites of soft tissue attachment, which are often not clearly visible on radiographs. Different lesions carry different prognoses and require a variety of treatments, and a good knowledge of the position of the synovial structures in the distal limb of the horse is essential for practitioners in the interpretation of radiographs. This study describes a new technique for creat...
Magnetic resonance anatomy of the proximal metacarpal region of the horse described from images acquired from low- and high-field magnets. While low-field magnetic resonance (MR) images can provide useful information in the investigation of proximal metacarpal region pain, an in-depth knowledge of anatomy and comparison with more detailed high-field images are essential to understand the meaning of different signal intensities within tissues. This anatomic description is based on low-field and high-field MR examination of 30 cadaver metacarpal regions of mature horses with no history of carpal or proximal metacarpal pain. Normal MR anatomy is described and is illustrated by high-field and low-field MR images in transverse, sagitt...
Results and complications of a novel technique for primary castration with an inguinal approach in horses. Complications associated with equine castration can have medical and financial consequences. This retrospective study investigated a novel method of castration via an inguinal approach in mature stallions and compared the incidence of complications with other methods. Objective: Castration via an inguinal approach has a low complication rate at the site of surgery compared with other castration techniques. Methods: Mature stallions (n = 238) were castrated under general anaesthesia in dorsal recumbency using an inguinal approach. The vaginal process was incised, the spermatic cord ligated twic...
Magnetic resonance imaging anatomy of the normal equine larynx and pharynx. The purpose of the present study was to describe normal magnetic resonance (MR) imaging anatomy of the equine larynx and pharynx and to present the optimal protocol, sequences, and possible limitations of this examination technique. Using a 0.3 T unit, the laryngeal and pharyngeal regions was imaged in two horses. The protocol consisted of sagittal and transverse T2-weighted (T2w) fast spin echo, transverse T1-weighted (T1w) spin echo, and dorsal high-resolution T1w gradient echo (both pre- and postcontrast enhancement) sequences. Euthanasia was performed at the end of the imaging procedure. M...
A cranial intercondylar arthroscopic approach to the caudal medial femorotibial joint of the horse. Current noninvasive techniques for imaging the soft tissue structures of the stifle have limitations. Arthroscopy is commonly used for the investigation and treatment of stifle pain. Cranial and caudal arthroscopic approaches to the femorotibial joints are used. However, complete examination of the axial aspect of the medial femorotibial joint (MFTJ) is not possible currently. Objective: To develop a cranial approach to the caudal pouch of the MFTJ and to assess whether it would allow a more complete examination of the compartment and facilitate the caudomedial approach. Methods: The regional ...
Complications of equine wound management and dermatologic surgery. Complications of wounds and cosmetic surgery can be accurately managed with a combination of timely surgical and medical intervention to ensure the best possible outcome. The lack of soft tissue protection and a large quantity of susceptible synovial, tendon, ligament, and neurovascular structures make early and meticulous evaluation of limb wounds critical. Skin grafting is usually used following a period of open wound management and after healthy granulation tissue formation. Penetrating wounds of the abdomen or thorax have a guarded prognosis resulting from the ensuing potential for infecti...
The prevalence of oral ulceration in Swedish horses when ridden with bit and bridle and when unridden. Oral soft tissue ulcers are common disorders of horses, but it is unclear if their prevalence is increased by riding horses with a bit and bridle. Oral examinations were performed on 113 horses and ponies, all which had received routine dental floating, that were divided into four groups depending on when they had last been ridden with a bit and bridle. The subjects comprised: group 1, a randomly selected population of ridden horses; group 2, a group of horses examined after being rested at pasture for 5 weeks; group 3, the previous group following 7 weeks of riding with a bit and bridle, and ...
Equine giant cell tumor of soft parts: a series of 21 cases (2000-2007). In horses, giant-cell tumors of soft parts are rare neoplasms, with the majority of reported cases occurring within the hind limb muscles and soft tissues in older horses. The following article documents 21 cases of equine giant-cell tumors of soft parts clinically examined within the state of Colorado from 2000 to 2007. The majority of cases occurred in male horses aged 10 years or older. Nine (43%) arose within the hind limbs. Key histologic features included numerous multinucleated giant cells and hemosiderin-laden macrophages admixed with a spindle-cell proliferation. The majority demonstr...
Anatomical features of the carpal flexor retinaculum of the horse. This study aims to elucidate the topographical anatomy of the carpal flexor retinaculum or palmar anular carpal ligament (PACL) in the horse. Ten specimen of the carpus of five healthy horses were studied by dissection in layers. Slices of 5 mm in thickness facilitated observation of the soft tissues. The superficial layer of the PACL subdivides into five compartments: one for the palmar nerve and the arterial and venous branches, one for only the radial artery, one for the radial vein, and one for the tendon of the radial carpal flexor muscle, and finally for the deep layer that supports all ...
Evaluation of technetium Tc 99m-labeled biotin for scintigraphic detection of soft tissue inflammation in horses. To evaluate the use of technetium Tc 99m-labeled EDTA-biotin monomer ((99m)Tc-EB1) as a scintigraphic imaging agent for soft tissue inflammatory lesions in horses. Methods: 6 healthy adult horses. Methods: First (phase 1), the agent's safety and blood-tissue clearance and an appropriate imaging protocol were determined in 6 horses. Each horse was injected with (99m)Tc-EB1 (1.1 GBq, IV, once); images were acquired at intervals during the following 24-hour period. Subsequently (phase 2), inflammation was induced via injection of 200 mg (10 mL) of mepivacaine (0.4 mg/kg) into the right neck muscu...
Diagnostic imaging of the equine fetlock region using radiography and ultrasonography. Part 1: Soft tissues. The equine fetlock is the joint most commonly associated with lameness. Although the fetlock is regarded as a simple joint, diagnosis of a fetlock disorder can be a challenge and various imaging modalities are routinely used to arrive at an accurate diagnosis. This review describes the principal disorders affecting the soft tissues of the fetlock region and addresses some of the technical aspects involved in taking radiographic and ultrasonographic images of the different soft tissue lesions. A combination of radiography and ultrasonography is still the most commonly used diagnostic approach i...
Analgesia from a veterinary perspective. The last decade has seen continued progress in both the recognition and management of animal pain. This upsurge in the use of analgesics in animals is welcome, but the main areas of use continue to be the control of postoperative or post-trauma pain, and the management of musculoskeletal pain, in companion animals and horses. The management of pain associated with other conditions, such as soft-tissue inflammation or cancer, is still relatively neglected. Pain management in farm animals, and in animals used in biomedical research could also be improved further. Apart from providing some intere...
Evaluation of foot pain in the standing horse by magnetic resonance imaging. The records of 41 horses with previously undiagnosed foot pain that had been examined by standing magnetic resonance imaging were reviewed and follow-up information was obtained from their owners two years after the examination. A range of soft tissue and osseous abnormalities were identified, with multiple lesions frequently occurring. Deep digital flexor tendonitis was recorded in 12 of the horses, and distension of the distal interphalangeal joint was identified in 15, but it was not always associated with lameness; in contrast, distension of the navicular bursa was always associated with l...
Diagnostic imaging of the equine tarsal region using radiography and ultrasonography. Part 1: the soft tissues. The equine tarsus is the most commonly affected hindlimb region associated with lameness. Diagnostic imaging is routinely applied but because of its complexity, being composed of 10 multifaceted bones and different joints, multiple ligaments, tendons and bursae, imaging this region can be a challenge. This is the first part of a two-part review of the structures and disorders of the equine tarsus. It describes the principal disorders affecting the soft tissues of the tarsal region and addresses some of the technical aspects in taking radiographic, ultrasonographic and scintigraphic images of t...
Use of concurrent scintigraphic and magnetic resonance imaging evaluation to improve understanding of the pathogenesis of injury of the podotrochlear apparatus. Use of physiological methods of diagnostic imaging could provide insight into the pathogenesis of foot pain in live horses. Objective: To describe patterns and intensity of increased radiopharmaceutical uptake (IRU) in the navicular bone, and relate this to distribution and types of signal intensity change in the navicular bone and to the presence or absence of lesions of the related soft tissue structures detected using MRI. Methods: Scintigraphic and MR images of 264 horses with unilateral or bilateral foot pain were analysed and graded. A Spearman rank correlation was used to test for relat...
Aging enhances a mechanically-induced reduction in tendon strength by an active process involving matrix metalloproteinase activity. Age-associated and degenerative loss of functional integrity in soft tissues develops from effects of cumulative and subtle changes in their extracellular matrix (ECM). The highly ordered tendon ECM provides the tissue with its tensile strength during loading. As age and exercise collide in the high incidence of tendinopathies, we hypothesized that aged tendons fail due to cumulative damage resulting from a combination of diminished matrix repair and fragmentation of ECM proteins induced by prolonged cyclical loading, and that this is an active cell-mediated process. We developed an equine ten...
Sonographic anatomy of the palmarodistal aspect of the equine digit. Although ultrasonography is widely used in equine orthopedics, its use in the distal portion of the digit is still limited. The purpose of this descriptive study was to document the normal ultrasonographic appearance of the palmarodistal aspect of the digital area imaged between the bulbs of the heels. Ultrasonographic images were obtained with a 7.5 MHz microconvex transducer in 10 fresh equine cadaver forelimbs and five soundhorses. Sagittal, parasagittal, and transverse images were obtained from the proximal aspect of the middle phalanx to the distal sesamoid bone. Anatomic sections were ob...
An investigation into the depth of penetration of low level laser therapy through the equine tendon in vivo. Low level laser therapy (LLLT) is frequently used in the treatment of wounds, soft tissue injury and in pain management. The exact penetration depth of LLLT in human tissue remains unspecified. Similar uncertainty regarding penetration depth arises in treating animals. This study was designed to test the hypothesis that transmission of LLLT in horses is increased by clipping the hair and/or by cleaning the area to be treated with alcohol, but is unaffected by coat colour. A LLLT probe (810 nm, 500 mW) was applied to the medial aspect of the superficial flexor tendon of seventeen equine forelim...
Comparative in vitro biomechanical evaluation of two soft tissue defect products. A soft tissue defect is often an unavoidable consequence of various surgical procedures or a result of trauma. Recently, intraoperative use of xenograft as a patch to the soft tissue defect has become popular with various products available in the market. In this study, mechanical properties of the OrthADAPTtrade mark Bioimplants (Pegasus Biologics, Irvine, CA), new xenograft products composed of collagen from equine pericardium, were evaluated individually and against an existing bioimplant product. The OrthADAPTtrade mark Bioimplants have three subtypes which differ in the degree of crosslin...
Ultrasonographic anatomy of the temporomandibular joint in healthy pure-bred Spanish horses. The objective was to describe the normal ultrasonographic appearance of the soft tissue and bony structures of the temporomandibular joint in Pure-Bred Spanish horses using frozen and plastinated sections performed as anatomical references. The temporomandibular joint of five healthy Pure-Bred Spanish horses and the head specimens from 12 Pure-Bred Spanish cadavers that were subjected to euthanasia for reasons other than temporomandibular joint problems were studied sonographically and anatomically. An 11 MHz linear-array transducer was used to obtain longitudinal ultrasonographic images of th...
Disseminated cryptococcosis including osteomyelitis in a horse. A 4-year-old Arab mare was diagnosed with disseminated cryptococcosis, including osteomyelitis of the proximal phalanx of the left hind limb, osteomyelitis with associated soft tissue granuloma of a rib and disseminated, large cryptococcal nodules in the lungs. The lesion in the dorsoproximal aspect of the proximal phalanx had a large area of cortical lysis with spiculated periosteal new bone and extensive soft tissue swelling. The affected rib had a pathological fracture. Cryptococcal osteomyelitis has not been previously reported in horses but should be considered as a differential diagnosis...
Intraarterial contrast-enhanced computed tomography of the equine distal extremity. A technique for regional delivery of contrast medium to the foot of the horse to increase the diagnostic utility of computed tomography (CT) for the characterization of soft tissue structures within the hoof capsule was developed. An intraarterial catheter was placed under ultrasound guidance into the medial palmar artery at the level of the carpus to facilitate a steady-state infusion of iodinated contrast medium. Two 5 mm collimated contiguous acquisition CT scans were performed in 10 horses without lameness or radiographic evidence of distal sesamoid bone degeneration. CT examination was pe...
Imaging diagnosis–equine mast cell tumor. Equine mast cell tumors are typically benign solitary growths of the head, neck, trunk, or limbs. When involving the limbs, these masses tend to be adjacent to joints without involving them. In radiographs there is often a well-circumscribed soft tissue mass with granular mineralization. The Arabian breed appears to be over represented. Surgical removal is usually curative. In this report, we describe the diagnosis, clinical features, and management of mast cell tumors in the rear limb of a horse.
Injuries in the event horse: training versus competition. Two related studies on injuries sustained by event horses during competition and during training are reported. During the cross-country phase of competition, the most common injuries were lacerations and abrasions to the carpus and stifle. Superficial digital flexor tendonitis and exertional rhabdomyolysis were significantly more common during Cours Complete Internationale (CCI) competitions compared to one-day event (ODE) competitions. The difference in injury types at ODEs and CCI competitions probably relates to the increased athletic demands of the CCI and the closer veterinary observation...
Vascular distribution of contrast medium during intraosseous regional perfusion of the distal portion of the equine forelimb. To describe the vascular distribution pattern of contrast medium during intraosseous regional perfusion (IORP) of the distal portion of the equine forelimb. Methods: 13 cadaveric forelimbs from 12 horses without forelimb diseases. Methods: Serial lateromedial radiographic views were taken of the distal portion of 10 heparinized cadaveric forelimbs at 0, 1, 2, 6, 15, and 30 minutes during IORP of the third metacarpal bone (MCIII) by use of iodinated contrast medium and a tourniquet placed over the proximal portion of MCIII. Vascular regions of interest (ROI) were created for each radiograph. Re...
A quantitative study of the equine soft palate using histomorphometry. Dorsal displacement of the soft palate is a common cause of upper airway obstruction in racehorses and is of unknown aetiology. To determine whether the palate may displace for structural reasons, knowledge of the normal soft palate is required. The present study aimed to describe, qualitatively and quantitatively, the structure of the normal equine soft palate using histomorphometry. In soft palates from 12 Thoroughbreds, glandular tissue predominated (ca. 40% of total area), located mainly in the rostral and ventral regions. Rostrally, muscles attached to a tendinous aponeurosis located dors...
[Disorders of the origin of the suspensory ligament in the horse: a diagnostic challenge]. Lameness in horses due to pain originating from the proximal metacarpal/metatarsal region remains a diagnostic challenge. In cases of obvious lameness the pain can be localised to this region by diagnostic anaesthesia. Because a variety of disorders can cause lameness in this region different imaging modalities including radiography, ultrasonography and scintigraphy should be used to arrive at an accurate diagnosis. Even though a precise anatomic-pathologic diagnosis can still be an enigma, because not only bone and joints, but also soft tissue structures including the proximal suspensory liga...
Vancomycin for the treatment of methicillin-resistant staphylococcal and enterococcal infections in 15 horses. We retrospectively reviewed the cases of 15 foals and adult horses in which vancomycin was used, alone or in combination with an aminoglycoside, to treat methicillin-resistant staphylococcal and enterococcal infections. Signalment, presenting complaint, history (including history of treatment for the current complaint), results of bacterial culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing, treatment, and outcome were reviewed. The average vancomycin dosage was 7.5 mg/kg q8h, administered by intravenous infusion over 30 min. The infection resolved in all 7 horses with soft tissue infections and...
An unusual case of generalized soft-tissue mineralization in a suckling foal. An atypical case of severe soft-tissue mineralization in a 3-week-old foal from a herd of Andalusian horses is described. The herd clinical history and the laboratory findings were compatible with a diagnosis of secondary hyperparathyroidism due to a mineral imbalance in the diet (low calcium and high phosphorus intake). Mares showed a marked increase in serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) approximately 10 times normal levels. Serum PTH was marginally elevated in foals. Clinical signs (unthriftiness, painful joints, lameness in one or more limbs, and stiff gait) were more pronounced in foals than ...