The equine spine is a complex structure composed of numerous vertebrae that provide support, facilitate movement, and protect the spinal cord. It is divided into several regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal, each contributing to the overall biomechanics and flexibility of the horse. The spine plays a significant role in the horse's locomotion, posture, and ability to perform various tasks. Research on the equine spine encompasses studies on its anatomy, function, and the impact of various conditions such as injuries, deformities, and age-related changes. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the structural and functional aspects of the equine spine, as well as its role in equine health and performance.
Hestvik G, Ekman S, Lindberg R.A novel case where onchocercosis was identified as a cause of cervical myelopathy in the horse is described. A 15-year-old Connemara mare was euthanized due to progressive locomotion disturbance. Postmortem examination revealed soft-tissue swelling in the intervertebral joint capsule of C6-7 with narrowing of the vertebral canal. On light microscopy, axonopathy was pronounced in the corresponding segment of the spinal cord. Fibrous tissue and eosinophilic granulomas were found in the joint capsule, together with parasites identified histologically as Onchocerca sp.
Sweers L, Carstens A.Two horses with discospondylitis are described with emphasis on the imaging modalities used and their contribution to the final diagnosis and outcome. Radiographic findings were vertebral endplate lysis with sclerosis in both horses, with additional vertebral subluxation and ventral spondylosis in one horse. Ultrasonographic findings included vertebral malalignment and obliteration of the intervertebral disc by spondylotic bone in one horse and irregular endplates, a widened disc space, a hypoechoic paravertebral abscess and hypoechoic, atrophic adjacent musculature with loss of linear fiber p...
Scott P, Witonsky S, Robertson J, Daft B.Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM), caused by Sarcocystis neurona infection in the central nervous system (CNS), affects up to 1% of all horses during their lifetimes. Neither the protective immune response nor the immunopathology associated with the disease is well understood. To begin to clarify the pathogenesis of the disease, immunohistochemical staining for B and T lymphocytes was performed on spinal cord sections obtained from 17 horses, all of which were all positive for S. neurona based on immunohistochemical staining. Fifteen of the 17 horses included in the study were killed du...
Holm KR, Wennerstrand J, Lagerquist U, Eksell R, Johnston C.Diagnostic infiltration of local anaesthetic solution is commonly used in cases of equine back pain. Evaluation is subjective and it is not known how local analgesia of the back affects horses without clinical signs of back pain. Objective: To evaluate the effect of infiltration of local anaesthetics on the movement of the back in horses without clinical signs of back pain, and to evaluate the usefulness of kinematic studies as an objective and quantitative tool in evaluating local analgesia in clinical practice. Methods: The kinematics of the back in 10 clinically sound horses were measured o...
Haussler KK, Erb HN.Pressure algometry (PA) is a potential modality for objectively measuring mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) in horses. Its ability to differentiate musculoskeletal pain sites from nonpain sites is unknown and must be assessed prior to its clinical application. Objective: To assess the ability of PA to detect induced musculoskeletal pain. Methods: Twenty clinically normal mature horses (2 groups of 10 horses, over 2 years) were used to measure MNTs before and after implantation and removal of 2 fixation half-pins in the dorsal spinous processes of 2 adjacent vertebrae. To assess hyperalg...
Siebenga J, Segers MJ, Elzinga MJ, Bakker FC, Haarman HJ, Patka P.Retrospective study and review of literature. Objective: Study of demographic data concerning spinal fractures caused by horse riding, classification of fractures according to the AO and Load Sharing classifications, evaluation of mid-term radiological results and long-term functional results. Methods: A review of medical reports and radiological examinations of patients presented to our hospital with horse riding-related spine fractures over a 13-year period; long-term functional follow-up is performed using the Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire (RMDQ-24). Results: Thirty-six spine fract...
Perkins JD, Schumacher J, Kelly G, Pollock P, Harty M.To describe and evaluate subtotal ostectomy of dorsal spinous processes (DSP) performed in standing horses. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: Nine adult horses. Methods: The diseased portions of the DSP were removed with the horses standing and sedated after infiltrating a local anesthetic agent around the affected DSP. Medical records of affected horses were reviewed to determine history, findings of physical and radiographic examination, surgical technique, postoperative complications, and outcome. Results: Five horses had subtotal ostectomy of DSP because of osteomyelitis, and 4 becaus...
Peham C, Schobesberger H.Diagnosis of back problems in equine orthopedics can be a difficult task. The aim of our study was to develop a new method for estimating the stiffness of the equine back in vivo. We measured the activity of the long back muscle at two locations on both sides at thoracic vertebrae T12 and T16 of 15 horses flexing and extending their back at stance using telemetric surface electromyography, while simultaneously recording the motion of the back with a video camera system. Out of these paired data sets we computed a transfer function in the frequency domain and evaluated its capability of capturi...
de Cocq P, van Weeren PR, Back W.Although the saddle is seen as one of the biggest causes of back pain, and weightbearing is seen as an important aetiological factor in 'kissing spine' syndrome (KSS), the effects of a saddle and weight on the back movements of the horse have never been studied. Objective: To determine the effects of pressure on the back, exerted by tack and weight, on movements of the horse. Objective: Weight has an extending effect on the horse's back and, as a compensatory mechanism to this extension, an alteration in pro- and retraction angles was expected. A similar but smaller effect was expected from a ...
Schlacher C, Peham C, Licka T, Schobesberger H.Mechanical properties of the equine back are the bases for realistic modelling of the back, which is recognised as an important step towards improved understanding of the pathogenesis of equine back conditions. Objective: The stiffness of the equine back depends on the direction of the applied force and on the position of the spine. Methods: Fourteen dissected spines were tested in a tensile testing machine. In 3 different positions, simulating dorsoventral, laterolateral and dorsoventral-30 degree rotated movement, force was applied on the dorsal spinous process of T12 to reach an excursion o...
Cassiat G, Pourcelot P, Tavernier L, Geiger D, Denoix JM, Degueurce D.The costs and investments required for the purchase and training of showjumpers justify the need to find selection means for jumping horses. Use of objective kinematic criteria correlated to jumping ability could be helpful for this assessment. Objective: To compare back kinematics between 2 groups of horses of different competition levels (Group 1, competing at high level; Group 2 competing at low level) while free jumping over a 1 m vertical fence. Methods: Three-dimensional recordings were performed using 2 panning cameras. Kinematic parameters of the withers and tuber sacrale (vertical dis...
Keegan KG, Arafat S, Skubic M, Wilson DA, Kramer J, Messer NM, Johnson PJ, O'Brien DP, Johnson G.Subjective neurological evaluation in horses is prone to bias. An objective method of spinal ataxia detection is not subject to these limitations and could be of use in equine practice and research. Objective: Kinematic data in the walking horse can differentiate normal and spinal ataxic horses. Methods: Twelve normal and 12 spinal ataxic horses were evaluated by kinematic analysis walking on a treadmill. Each body position signal was reduced to a scalar measure of uncertainty then fuzzy clustered into normal or ataxic groups. Correct classification percentage (CCP) was then calculated using m...
Rhodin M, Johnston C, Holm KR, Wennerstrand J, Drevemo S.A common opinion among riders and in the literature is that the positioning of the head and neck influences the back of the horse, but this has not yet been measured objectively. Objective: To evaluate the effect of head and neck position on the kinematics of the back in riding horses. Methods: Eight Warmblood riding horses in regular work were studied on a treadmill at walk and trot with the head and neck in 3 different predetermined positions achieved by side reins attached to the bit and to an anticast roller. The 3-dimensional movement of the thoracolumbar spine was measured from the posit...
Sebastian MM, Giles RC.Fibrocartilaginous embolic myelopathy was diagnosed in a 11-year-old, male, Tennessee Walking Horse by histopathological examination of the spinal cord after the horse was killed because of severe neurological dysfunction. Both ventral funiculi of C6 and C7 cervical spinal cord had extensive necrosis with blood vessels containing fibrocartilaginous emboli. A similar fibrocartilaginous embolus was observed in a single large spinal artery adjoining the vertebral leptomeninges.
Erichsen C, Eksell P, Holm KR, Lord P, Johnston C.Radiography and scintigraphy are used to aid diagnosis of the cause of back pain, but a large variation in appearance and radiopharmaceutical uptake in fully functioning horses make diagnosis difficult. Objective: To describe the range of and compare scintigraphic and radiographic findings in the spinous processes of horses without clinical signs of back problems. Methods: Thirty-three apparently normal riding horses underwent scintigraphic and radiographic examinations of the spinous processes in the thoracolumbar spine. Scintigraphic images were evaluated in a continuous blue, green and red ...
Mattoon JS, Drost WT, Grguric MR, Auld DM, Reed SM.Degenerative changes and osteochondrosis of articular processes are common sources of stiffness or pain in the equine cervical spine. Temporary relief of the clinical signs related to these maladies may be achieved by injecting corticosteroids into the joint. This is routinely done by ultrasound-guided needle placement. The cervical articular processes and joint form an easily identifiable sonographic landmark, a step-like echogenic surface described as having the appearance of a "chair."
Licka TF, Peham C, Frey A.To use electromyography (EMG) to measure physiologic activity of the longissimus dorsi muscles of horses during trotting on a treadmill. Methods: 15 adult horses (5 to 20 years old that weighed 450 to 700 kg) that did not have clinical signs of back pain. Methods: Data were recorded for each horse during trotting on a treadmill at speeds of 2.6 to 4.4 m/s. Surface electromyography was recorded bilaterally from the longissimus dorsi muscles at the levels of T12, T16, and L3. Results: In each motion cycle, 2 EMG maxima were found at the end of the diagonal stance phases. The EMG activity peaked ...
van Biervliet J, Scrivani PV, Divers TJ, Erb HN, de Lahunta A, Nixon A.Different criteria have been described based on height reduction of the total myelographic contrast column and components of it as tests for compression of the spinal cord due to cervical stenotic myelopathy (CSM). Fifty percent height reduction of the dorsal myelographic column (DMC), <2 mm empiric height of the DMC and a 40% reduction of the ratio of stenosis calculated based on the height reduction of the entire dural diameter (DD) have been described as decision criteria for considering the test result positive. The reasons for selecting these decision criteria or their accuracies have ...
Nollet H, Van Ham L, Verschooten F, Vanderstraeten G, Deprez P.To determine the usefulness of magnetic motor-evoked potentials (MMEPs) for assessing the integrity of the cervical, thoracic, and thoracolumbar spinal cord in horses with bilateral hind limb ataxia. Methods: 9 horses and 1 donkey with bilateral hind limb ataxia of various degrees. Methods: The motor cortex was stimulated magnetically, and MMEPs were recorded bilaterally from the extensor carpi radialis and cranial tibial muscles. Results: In 5 horses and 1 donkey, MMEPs with normal onset latencies and peak-to-peak amplitude were recorded from the extensor carpi radialis muscles, whereas abnor...
Faber MJ, van Weeren PR, Schepers M, Barneveld A.In order to objectively quantify the effect of manipulation on back-related locomotion anomalies in the horse, a recently developed kinematic measuring technique for the objective quantification of thoracolumbar motion in the horse was applied in a dressage horse that was suffering from a back problem. In this horse, clinically, a right-convex bending (scoliosis) from the 10th thoracic vertebra to the second lumbar vertebra was diagnosed. As a result, there was a marked asymmetric movement of the thoracolumbar spine. Functionally, there was severe loss of performance. Thoracolumbar motion was ...
Lim J, Puttaswamy V, Gizzi M, Christie L, Croker W, Crowe P.Equestrian activities are associated with a high rate of injury. Attempts to reduce the incidence and severity of injury require accurate characterization of risk factors and pattern of injury. The present study was performed to analyse the injuries seen at an Australian centre where a large number of equestrian injuries present. Methods: Data were collected prospectively over a 3 year period on all equestrian injuries presenting to the Prince of Wales -Hospital complex. These data were compared against and combined with retrospectively collected data over the preceding 3 years at the same cen...
Erichsen C, Eksell P, Widström C, Roethlisberger Holm K, Johnston C, Lord P.Scintigraphic evaluation of the spinous processes of the equine spine has been done by subjective evaluation of radiotracer uptake in clinically abnormal horses. To determine the range of variation in asymptomatic riding horses, 33 normal horses were examined. Two 60 degrees oblique views of the thoracic and lumbar spine were evaluated subjectively, and a semi quantitative method based on standardized regions of interest in each spinous process in T10-L3 was also applied. A ratio between each spinous process and a reference area (Rib 15 or 16) was calculated. The effects of two different color...
Roe JP, Taylor TK, Edmunds IA, Cumming RG, Ruff SJ, Plunkett-Cole MD, Mikk M, Jones RF.The objective of the present study was to determine the incidence of acute spinal cord injuries (ASCI) in all forms of horse riding in New South Wales (NSW) for the period 1976-1996. Other aims of the present study were to compare and contrast ASCI with vertebral column injuries (VCI) without neurological damage and to define appropriate safety measures in relation to spinal injury in horse-riding. Methods: A retrospective review was done of all ASCI cases (n = 32) admitted to the two acute spinal cord injury units in NSW for the cited period. A comparable review of VCI cases (n = 30) admitted...
Ranner W, Gerhards H, Klee W.There is a regularly high proportion of x-ray findings indicating a pathological deterioration of the equine vertebral column which do not correlate with the clinical symptoms. Therefore, palpation remains one of the most important clinical examination methods to determine whether or not a horse is suffering from back pain. The aim of this study was to check the validity of palpation results of horses with an assumed back problem. The palpation results of 167 horses were evaluated in retrospect: If the palpation proceeds under following conditions, positive palpation results agree with an prim...
Johnston C, Holmt K, Faber M, Erichsen C, Eksell P, Drevemo S.The relationship between structure and function is important in the judgement of the horse. Twenty sound riding horses walked and trotted on a treadmill. The movement of the backs of each of the horses was measured using a commercially available movement analysis system. Morphometric, spatiotemporal and kinematic information were correlated to investigate the effect of conformation on movement. Taller and heavier horses seem to have longer thoracic and lumbar backs, and are wider at the pelvis. Horses with longer strides extended and flexed their backs in the caudal saddle region to a greater ...
Faber M, Johnston C, van Weeren PR, Barneveld A.We tested the hypothesis that repeatability of a standardised protocol for quantifying back kinematics is sufficiently high not to prevent its use in the clinical evaluation of horses with back problems. We investigated the extent to which differences between laboratories may affect the results when a standardised protocol is used. As a clinical tool, movement analysis techniques are helpful for the objective and quantitative assessment of kinematics. Knowledge about the repeatability of the kinematic data is very important. The present study investigates the repeatability of back kinematics i...
Clayton HM, Belock B, Lavagnino M, Kaiser LJ.The objectives of this study were to measure forces and pressure profiles when riding with a conventional saddle compared to bareback riding. An electronic pressure mat was used to compare contact area, mean total force and pressure variables for one rider riding seven horses at sitting trot with a conventional saddle or bareback. The use of a saddle was associated with a larger contact area and higher mean total force compared with the bareback condition. Mass normalized mean total force for bareback riding was lower than expected based on the rider's body mass, suggesting that shear forces e...
Dąbek J, Koczy B, Piotrkowicz J.Horse riding becoming increasingly common and popular form of recreation and leisure activities. However, enforced, proper posture while riding a horse, may contribute to decrease mobility of spine and lead to occurrence back pain. Objective: The aim of this study was to assess the impact of the systematic training of horse riding on the global mobility of the spine and back pain prevalence in-training horse riders professionally and recreational. Methods: The study included 70 horse riders. The subjects were divided into two groups: 1) professional horse riders (n=50; 71.43%) or 2) a group of...
Kondo T, Sato F, Tsuzuki N, Yamada K.Cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM), a common cause of cervical spinal cord compression, is a neurological disease characterized by general proprioceptive ataxia and weakness of hindlimbs that tends to develop in young adult Thoroughbred horses. Although male horses seem to be at increased risk for CVSM, the mechanism for the occurrence of sex differences in the prevalence of CVSM is still poorly understood. Hence, we hypothesized that sex differences in the development of cervical spinal cord and spinal canal would affect the development of CVSM. This study aimed to evaluate sex dif...
Shearer TR, Kinsley MA, Pease AP, Patterson JS.The purpose of this study was to develop a minimally invasive approach to equine cervical articular facet joints for application of an ND:YAG LASER and to evaluate the effects of the laser fiber on the surrounding tissue. Under general anesthesia, an ND:YAG LASER was used to apply 2000 J of energy to 5 cervical articular facet joints in 3 horses (15 joints total). Horses were euthanized and the cervical facets and spinal cords were examined grossly and histologically. Gross pathology of the articular facets revealed evidence of articular cartilage charring and diffuse roughening of the surface...
Hördegen KM.115 horseback riders have undergone clinical and radiologic examinations of the spine. A minimum of 10 years' riding was required. Depending on intensity of training and number of riding hours, the subjects were divided into three groups: roughriders, sport riders and hobby riders. It was striking that of the bare half of cases (51) suffering from lower back, only 8 (about 15%) had had medical treatment and actually been disabled. Moreover, 47% of the riders with lower back pain were painfree in the saddle, i.e. when riding. No causal connection was found between riding and a higher incidence ...
Huggons N.A Thoroughbred yearling was presented with neurological, radiographic, and myelographic abnormalities consistent with cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy. Surgical correction was performed by using ventral cervical interbody fusion at 3 intervertebral spaces. The patient recovered uneventfully from surgery. The neurological status remained unchanged initially; however, significant improvement was noted 37 weeks postoperatively. Un Thoroughbred d’un an a été présenté avec des anomalies neurologiques, radiographiques et myélographiques compatibles avec une myélopathie sténosée des ...
Ekman S.Lesions in the cervical spine of 28 young horses (Standardbred Trotters and Swedish Warmbloods), killed because of longstanding or severe ataxia, are described. The material consists of all horses with ataxia available for necropsy and presented to the large animal clinic of the School of Veterinary Medicine, Uppsala and the Animal Hospital in Helsingborg during 1981 through 1983. After a clinical and radiographic examination, including myelography in all but 2 cases, the horses were killed and necropsy was performed. The cases were divided into three categories based on the radiographic and p...
Graubner C, Bergmann W, Gerber V, Veraa S, Oevermann A, Wijnberg I.Aims: To determine the relation between quantitative electromyography (QEMG) of the cervical ventral serratus muscle, radiographic findings and post-mortem gross and histopathological examination in order to calculate the ability of QEMG to localize the region of cervical compressive neuropathy and myelopathy in horses. Methods: In this clinical, non-randomised, partially blinded study (QEMG and histology), 36 warmblood horses with clinical suspicion of cervical spine disease were examined with QEMG in different segments of the ventral serratus muscle. Results were compared to normative data. ...
Greet TR, Jeffcott LB, Whitwell KE, Cook WR.The paper describes the assessment and practical implications of a laryngeal adductory reflex in a series of 30 ataxic and 64 non-ataxic horses. The reflex was evoked by slapping the saddle region just caudal to the withers. In normal horses this produced a flickering adductory movement of the contralateral arytenoid cartilage which was observed endoscopically. Abolition of the laryngeal response was encountered in in 3 situations:--(1) Disruption of the afferent impulse occurred in those horses in which there was significant spinal cord pathology affecting the pathway from the cranial thoraci...
Mayaki AM, Abdul Razak IS, Mohd Adzahan N, Mazlan M, Abdullah R.Equine chronic back pain (CBP) has been linked to different pathologic processes, which directly or indirectly involve spinal structures. Thus, making diagnosis and management very challenging with most horses with the condition recommended for early retirement from athletic activity. This study described the spinal cord lesions and the development of reactive microgliosis and astrocytosis in the spinal cords of horse with CBP. Thoracolumbar spinal cord segments from three horses euthanized because of unresolved CBP were dissected and grossly and histopathologically examined. The expression of...
Djernaes JD, Nielsen JV, Berg LC.The widths of spaces between the thoracolumbar processi spinosi (interspinous spaces) are frequently assessed using radiography in sports horses; however effects of varying X-ray beam angles and geometric distortion have not been previously described. The aim of this prospective, observational study was to determine whether X-ray beam angle has an effect on apparent widths of interspinous spaces. Thoracolumbar spine specimens were collected from six equine cadavers and left-right lateral radiographs and sagittal and dorsal reconstructed computed tomographic (CT) images were acquired. Sequentia...
Donaldson MC, Holter AM, Neuhoff S, Arnosky JA, Simpson BW, Vernon K, Blob RW, DesJardins JD.Although horseback riding is a well-established means of rehabilitation therapy for a variety of human patients, there are few data on the biomechanical relationships between horse and rider during such hippotherapy. We simultaneously tracked the movements of a horse with several different novice riders, under conditions similar to hippotherapy, to evaluate whether horses pass the same motion to different riders while being lead at a walk. Riders were outfitted with a goniometric data collection system that recorded the angles of flexion and extension and lateral bending of the thoracic and lu...
Jauch SY, Wallstabe S, Sellenschloh K, Rundt D, Püschel K, Morlock MM, Meenen NM, Huber G.Horse-related injuries are manifold and can involve the upper and lower limbs, the trunk, spine or head. Cervical spine injuries are not among the most common injuries. However, they can be fatal and often result in neurological symptoms. This study investigated the influence of the posture of the cervical spine on the ultimate strength and the pattern of vertebrae failure with the aim to provide some guidance for protective clothing design. Methods: Eighteen human cervical spines, each divided into two specimens (three vertebrae each), were subjected to a simulator test designed to mimic a sp...
Kamerling SG.The recognition and alleviation of animal pain is a growing veterinary and public concern. Pain can be of an acute or chronic nature with different behavioral manifestations. Physiologically, pain is a dynamic and complex phenomenon that produces changes in the central and autonomic nervous systems as well as in the endocrine system. Horses and other animals appear to possess an endogenous pain-suppressing system involving the brainstem and spinal cord. This system can modulate pain perception and the responses to it. The recently discovered endogenous opioid peptides (endorphins and enkephali...
Clayton HM, Townsend HG.A photographic method was used to measure axial rotation, dorsoventral flexion and extension and lateral bending at each intervertebral joint complex from the occiput to the first thoracic vertebra in spinal segments from 19 foals under 12 months of age and 14 horses over three years of age. Comparisons between the two groups showed that there was a general reduction in cervical spinal mobility with age. For the three types of movement at the eight joints tested, adults' mobility exceeded that of foals in only three cases (axial rotation and lateral bending at the A-O joint, and lateral bendin...
Rijckaert J, Raes E, Buczinski S, Dumoulin M, Deprez P, Van Ham L, van Loon G, Pardon B.Spinal cord dysfunction/compression and ataxia are common in horses. Presumptive diagnosis is most commonly based on neurological examination and cervical radiography, but the interest into the diagnostic value of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) with recording of magnetic motor evoked potentials has increased. The problem for the evaluation of diagnostic tests for spinal cord dysfunction is the absence of a gold standard in the living animal. Objective: To compare diagnostic accuracy of TMS, cervical radiography, and neurological examination. Methods: One hundred seventy-four horses ad...
Rivas LJ, Hinchcliff KW, Robertson JT.Cervical meningomyelocele, spina bifida, and hydrocephalus were diagnosed in a newborn miniature colt that was unable to stand and had a cystic mass in the caudal portion of the dorsal cervical region. Results of physical examination and ultrasonographic imaging of the brain supported the diagnosis of hydrocephalus. Results of radiographic evaluation of the vertebral column were consistent with spina bifida at C5-C6. Fluid aspirated from the cervical mass resembled CSF. Radiography of the cervical region after injection of iohexol into the mass revealed herniation of the spinal cord through a ...
Pourcelot P, Audigié F, Degueurce C, Denoix JM, Geiger D.This study was conducted to evaluate a method for quantifying the flexion-extension movements of the back of horses trotting on a track in the conditions of the clinical lameness examination. Using a 3-D kinematic analysis system, the successive positions of four markers placed at regular intervals between the withers and the tuber sacrale were recorded. To isolate the flexion-extension movements of the back, the positions of these four markers were recomputed in a trunk-related co-ordinate system of the horse. Then, for each frame, the equation of the third-order polynomial that best fitted t...
Bahar S, Bolat D, Selcuk ML.Although the cervical spinal cord (CSC) of the horse has particular importance in diseases of CNS, there is very little information about its segmental morphometry. The objective of the present study was to determine the morphometric features of the CSC segments in the horse and possible relationships among the morphometric features. The segmented CSC from five mature animals was used. Length, weight, diameter, and volume measurements of the segments were performed macroscopically. Lengths and diameters of segments were measured histologically, and area and volume measurements were performed u...
Ehrle A, Ressel L, Ricci E, Merle R, Singer ER.The equine interspinous ligament (ISL) consists of an oblique crossing arrangement of collagenous bundles which are thought to counteract the tensile and rotational forces of distraction between the spinous processes (SPs) in the caudal thoracic and cranial lumbar spine. The aim of this controlled histological study was to assess the structural anatomy and innervation of the ISL in horses with clinically significant overriding (dorsal) SPs (ORSPs) and to compare the findings with the ISL of normal horses. Samples of the ISL were obtained from 10 horses that underwent subtotal ostectomy for tre...
Sullivan HM, Acutt EV, Barrett MF, Salman MD, Ellis KL, King MR.The clinical relationship between equine limb lameness and secondary back dysfunction is largely unknown. Proper function of the spine is critical to maintain the integrity of the kinetic chain and attenuate forces from the appendicular skeleton. The musculus multifidus (m. multifidus) is the primary muscle providing spinal intersegmental stabilization and a functional relationship between m. multifidus hypertrophy and equine postural stability has been established. The relationship between equine thoracolumbar m. multifidus cross-sectional area (CSA) and limb lameness is unknown. The objectiv...
Liu SJ, Wang Q, Tang HH, Bai JZ, Wang FY, Lv Z, Chen SZ, Liu JS, Hong Y, Zhang JW.Retrospective analysis. Methods: China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China. Objective: A retrospective study that documents the modalities and clarifies the heterogeneity among spinal cord injuries (SCIs) caused by trauma to the thoracolumbar vertebral junction. Methods: X-ray and MRI imaging, neurological records, and the urodynamics results of 190 patients were reviewed and used to categorize different SCI modalities. First, injuries were divided into complete and incomplete injuries using the International Standard for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury. Next, the ...
Park S, Park S, Yoo J, Jee YS.This study investigated whether equine riding affects static or dynamic mechanical contractions on the thighs and trunk muscles in inactive women. Methods: Participants consisted of 30 women with a mean (SD) age of 21.06 (0.44) years. They were randomly allotted as follows: equine group (EQG, n= 15) and control group (CON, n= 15). Two types of muscle contraction properties in their thighs and trunk were measured through a tensiomyography (static muscle tester) and an isokinetic device (dynamic muscle tester), respectively. Using the body weights of EQG and CON as covariates, a 2-way between-gr...
Scilimati N, Beccati F, Dall'Aglio C, Di Meo A, Pepe M.To provide a postmortem description of anatomic variations and changes of the lumbosacroiliac region in horses. The authors hypothesized that lesion severity would increase with age and body weight and correlate to anatomic variations. Lumbosacroiliac vertebral specimens from 38 horses (mean age, 16 years; range, 5 to 30 years) that died or were euthanized for reasons unrelated to the study between November 2019 and October 2021. The lumbosacroiliac region of the vertebral column was removed from each cadaver. After dissection, disarticulation, and boiling, the anatomic specimens were examined...
Story MR, Nout-Lomas YS, Aboellail TA, Selberg KT, Barrett MF, Mcllwraith CW, Haussler KK. Dangerous behavior is considered an undesired trait, often attributed to poor training or bad-tempered horses. Unfortunately, horses with progressive signs of dangerous behavior are often euthanized due to concerns for rider safety and limitations in performance. However, this dangerous behavior may actually originate from chronic axial skeleton pain. This case series describes the medical histories and clinical presentations of horses presented for performance limitations and dangerous behavior judged to be related to intractable axial skeleton pain. Fourteen horses that developed severe pe...
Jackson CA, DE Lahunta A, Cummings JF, Divers TJ, Mohammed HO, Valentine BA, Hackett RP.The effectiveness of spinal accessory nerve branch biopsy evaluation as a means to confirm the diagnosis of equine motor neuron disease (EMND) was investigated. Sixteen horses with histories and clinical signs suggestive of EMND and 16 control horses with neither histories nor clinical signs of any neurological disorder, were subjects of the study. Biopsy samples of the ventral branch of the spinal accessory nerve were obtained either surgically, under general anaesthesia or post mortem immediately after euthanasia. Evaluation was done on the spinal cord of all horses to serve as the definitiv...
Scott P, Witonsky S, Robertson J, Daft B.Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM), caused by Sarcocystis neurona infection in the central nervous system (CNS), affects up to 1% of all horses during their lifetimes. Neither the protective immune response nor the immunopathology associated with the disease is well understood. To begin to clarify the pathogenesis of the disease, immunohistochemical staining for B and T lymphocytes was performed on spinal cord sections obtained from 17 horses, all of which were all positive for S. neurona based on immunohistochemical staining. Fifteen of the 17 horses included in the study were killed du...
Jortner BS, Scarratt WK, Modransky PD, Walton A, Perkins SK.Neuropathologic examination revealed axonal swelling and breakdown leading to Wallerian degeneration of affected myelinated nerve fibers in the spinal cord white matter of four young horses with equine cervical compressive myelopathy. Immunohistochemical reactions for the cell stress protein ubiquitin revealed an enhanced presence in the swollen axons, which may reflect a role for ubiquitin in the neuronal catabolic process of axonal compression and degeneration in this myelopathy.
