The equine spine is a complex structure composed of numerous vertebrae that provide support, facilitate movement, and protect the spinal cord. It is divided into several regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal, each contributing to the overall biomechanics and flexibility of the horse. The spine plays a significant role in the horse's locomotion, posture, and ability to perform various tasks. Research on the equine spine encompasses studies on its anatomy, function, and the impact of various conditions such as injuries, deformities, and age-related changes. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the structural and functional aspects of the equine spine, as well as its role in equine health and performance.
Scott P, Witonsky S, Robertson J, Daft B.Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM), caused by Sarcocystis neurona infection in the central nervous system (CNS), affects up to 1% of all horses during their lifetimes. Neither the protective immune response nor the immunopathology associated with the disease is well understood. To begin to clarify the pathogenesis of the disease, immunohistochemical staining for B and T lymphocytes was performed on spinal cord sections obtained from 17 horses, all of which were all positive for S. neurona based on immunohistochemical staining. Fifteen of the 17 horses included in the study were killed du...
Holm KR, Wennerstrand J, Lagerquist U, Eksell R, Johnston C.Diagnostic infiltration of local anaesthetic solution is commonly used in cases of equine back pain. Evaluation is subjective and it is not known how local analgesia of the back affects horses without clinical signs of back pain. Objective: To evaluate the effect of infiltration of local anaesthetics on the movement of the back in horses without clinical signs of back pain, and to evaluate the usefulness of kinematic studies as an objective and quantitative tool in evaluating local analgesia in clinical practice. Methods: The kinematics of the back in 10 clinically sound horses were measured o...
Haussler KK, Erb HN.Pressure algometry (PA) is a potential modality for objectively measuring mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) in horses. Its ability to differentiate musculoskeletal pain sites from nonpain sites is unknown and must be assessed prior to its clinical application. Objective: To assess the ability of PA to detect induced musculoskeletal pain. Methods: Twenty clinically normal mature horses (2 groups of 10 horses, over 2 years) were used to measure MNTs before and after implantation and removal of 2 fixation half-pins in the dorsal spinous processes of 2 adjacent vertebrae. To assess hyperalg...
Siebenga J, Segers MJ, Elzinga MJ, Bakker FC, Haarman HJ, Patka P.Retrospective study and review of literature. Objective: Study of demographic data concerning spinal fractures caused by horse riding, classification of fractures according to the AO and Load Sharing classifications, evaluation of mid-term radiological results and long-term functional results. Methods: A review of medical reports and radiological examinations of patients presented to our hospital with horse riding-related spine fractures over a 13-year period; long-term functional follow-up is performed using the Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire (RMDQ-24). Results: Thirty-six spine fract...
Perkins JD, Schumacher J, Kelly G, Pollock P, Harty M.To describe and evaluate subtotal ostectomy of dorsal spinous processes (DSP) performed in standing horses. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: Nine adult horses. Methods: The diseased portions of the DSP were removed with the horses standing and sedated after infiltrating a local anesthetic agent around the affected DSP. Medical records of affected horses were reviewed to determine history, findings of physical and radiographic examination, surgical technique, postoperative complications, and outcome. Results: Five horses had subtotal ostectomy of DSP because of osteomyelitis, and 4 becaus...
Peham C, Schobesberger H.Diagnosis of back problems in equine orthopedics can be a difficult task. The aim of our study was to develop a new method for estimating the stiffness of the equine back in vivo. We measured the activity of the long back muscle at two locations on both sides at thoracic vertebrae T12 and T16 of 15 horses flexing and extending their back at stance using telemetric surface electromyography, while simultaneously recording the motion of the back with a video camera system. Out of these paired data sets we computed a transfer function in the frequency domain and evaluated its capability of capturi...
de Cocq P, van Weeren PR, Back W.Although the saddle is seen as one of the biggest causes of back pain, and weightbearing is seen as an important aetiological factor in 'kissing spine' syndrome (KSS), the effects of a saddle and weight on the back movements of the horse have never been studied. Objective: To determine the effects of pressure on the back, exerted by tack and weight, on movements of the horse. Objective: Weight has an extending effect on the horse's back and, as a compensatory mechanism to this extension, an alteration in pro- and retraction angles was expected. A similar but smaller effect was expected from a ...
Schlacher C, Peham C, Licka T, Schobesberger H.Mechanical properties of the equine back are the bases for realistic modelling of the back, which is recognised as an important step towards improved understanding of the pathogenesis of equine back conditions. Objective: The stiffness of the equine back depends on the direction of the applied force and on the position of the spine. Methods: Fourteen dissected spines were tested in a tensile testing machine. In 3 different positions, simulating dorsoventral, laterolateral and dorsoventral-30 degree rotated movement, force was applied on the dorsal spinous process of T12 to reach an excursion o...
Cassiat G, Pourcelot P, Tavernier L, Geiger D, Denoix JM, Degueurce D.The costs and investments required for the purchase and training of showjumpers justify the need to find selection means for jumping horses. Use of objective kinematic criteria correlated to jumping ability could be helpful for this assessment. Objective: To compare back kinematics between 2 groups of horses of different competition levels (Group 1, competing at high level; Group 2 competing at low level) while free jumping over a 1 m vertical fence. Methods: Three-dimensional recordings were performed using 2 panning cameras. Kinematic parameters of the withers and tuber sacrale (vertical dis...
Keegan KG, Arafat S, Skubic M, Wilson DA, Kramer J, Messer NM, Johnson PJ, O'Brien DP, Johnson G.Subjective neurological evaluation in horses is prone to bias. An objective method of spinal ataxia detection is not subject to these limitations and could be of use in equine practice and research. Objective: Kinematic data in the walking horse can differentiate normal and spinal ataxic horses. Methods: Twelve normal and 12 spinal ataxic horses were evaluated by kinematic analysis walking on a treadmill. Each body position signal was reduced to a scalar measure of uncertainty then fuzzy clustered into normal or ataxic groups. Correct classification percentage (CCP) was then calculated using m...
Rhodin M, Johnston C, Holm KR, Wennerstrand J, Drevemo S.A common opinion among riders and in the literature is that the positioning of the head and neck influences the back of the horse, but this has not yet been measured objectively. Objective: To evaluate the effect of head and neck position on the kinematics of the back in riding horses. Methods: Eight Warmblood riding horses in regular work were studied on a treadmill at walk and trot with the head and neck in 3 different predetermined positions achieved by side reins attached to the bit and to an anticast roller. The 3-dimensional movement of the thoracolumbar spine was measured from the posit...
Sebastian MM, Giles RC.Fibrocartilaginous embolic myelopathy was diagnosed in a 11-year-old, male, Tennessee Walking Horse by histopathological examination of the spinal cord after the horse was killed because of severe neurological dysfunction. Both ventral funiculi of C6 and C7 cervical spinal cord had extensive necrosis with blood vessels containing fibrocartilaginous emboli. A similar fibrocartilaginous embolus was observed in a single large spinal artery adjoining the vertebral leptomeninges.
Erichsen C, Eksell P, Holm KR, Lord P, Johnston C.Radiography and scintigraphy are used to aid diagnosis of the cause of back pain, but a large variation in appearance and radiopharmaceutical uptake in fully functioning horses make diagnosis difficult. Objective: To describe the range of and compare scintigraphic and radiographic findings in the spinous processes of horses without clinical signs of back problems. Methods: Thirty-three apparently normal riding horses underwent scintigraphic and radiographic examinations of the spinous processes in the thoracolumbar spine. Scintigraphic images were evaluated in a continuous blue, green and red ...
Mattoon JS, Drost WT, Grguric MR, Auld DM, Reed SM.Degenerative changes and osteochondrosis of articular processes are common sources of stiffness or pain in the equine cervical spine. Temporary relief of the clinical signs related to these maladies may be achieved by injecting corticosteroids into the joint. This is routinely done by ultrasound-guided needle placement. The cervical articular processes and joint form an easily identifiable sonographic landmark, a step-like echogenic surface described as having the appearance of a "chair."
Licka TF, Peham C, Frey A.To use electromyography (EMG) to measure physiologic activity of the longissimus dorsi muscles of horses during trotting on a treadmill. Methods: 15 adult horses (5 to 20 years old that weighed 450 to 700 kg) that did not have clinical signs of back pain. Methods: Data were recorded for each horse during trotting on a treadmill at speeds of 2.6 to 4.4 m/s. Surface electromyography was recorded bilaterally from the longissimus dorsi muscles at the levels of T12, T16, and L3. Results: In each motion cycle, 2 EMG maxima were found at the end of the diagonal stance phases. The EMG activity peaked ...
van Biervliet J, Scrivani PV, Divers TJ, Erb HN, de Lahunta A, Nixon A.Different criteria have been described based on height reduction of the total myelographic contrast column and components of it as tests for compression of the spinal cord due to cervical stenotic myelopathy (CSM). Fifty percent height reduction of the dorsal myelographic column (DMC), <2 mm empiric height of the DMC and a 40% reduction of the ratio of stenosis calculated based on the height reduction of the entire dural diameter (DD) have been described as decision criteria for considering the test result positive. The reasons for selecting these decision criteria or their accuracies have ...
Nollet H, Van Ham L, Verschooten F, Vanderstraeten G, Deprez P.To determine the usefulness of magnetic motor-evoked potentials (MMEPs) for assessing the integrity of the cervical, thoracic, and thoracolumbar spinal cord in horses with bilateral hind limb ataxia. Methods: 9 horses and 1 donkey with bilateral hind limb ataxia of various degrees. Methods: The motor cortex was stimulated magnetically, and MMEPs were recorded bilaterally from the extensor carpi radialis and cranial tibial muscles. Results: In 5 horses and 1 donkey, MMEPs with normal onset latencies and peak-to-peak amplitude were recorded from the extensor carpi radialis muscles, whereas abnor...
Faber MJ, van Weeren PR, Schepers M, Barneveld A.In order to objectively quantify the effect of manipulation on back-related locomotion anomalies in the horse, a recently developed kinematic measuring technique for the objective quantification of thoracolumbar motion in the horse was applied in a dressage horse that was suffering from a back problem. In this horse, clinically, a right-convex bending (scoliosis) from the 10th thoracic vertebra to the second lumbar vertebra was diagnosed. As a result, there was a marked asymmetric movement of the thoracolumbar spine. Functionally, there was severe loss of performance. Thoracolumbar motion was ...
Lim J, Puttaswamy V, Gizzi M, Christie L, Croker W, Crowe P.Equestrian activities are associated with a high rate of injury. Attempts to reduce the incidence and severity of injury require accurate characterization of risk factors and pattern of injury. The present study was performed to analyse the injuries seen at an Australian centre where a large number of equestrian injuries present. Methods: Data were collected prospectively over a 3 year period on all equestrian injuries presenting to the Prince of Wales -Hospital complex. These data were compared against and combined with retrospectively collected data over the preceding 3 years at the same cen...
Erichsen C, Eksell P, Widström C, Roethlisberger Holm K, Johnston C, Lord P.Scintigraphic evaluation of the spinous processes of the equine spine has been done by subjective evaluation of radiotracer uptake in clinically abnormal horses. To determine the range of variation in asymptomatic riding horses, 33 normal horses were examined. Two 60 degrees oblique views of the thoracic and lumbar spine were evaluated subjectively, and a semi quantitative method based on standardized regions of interest in each spinous process in T10-L3 was also applied. A ratio between each spinous process and a reference area (Rib 15 or 16) was calculated. The effects of two different color...
Roe JP, Taylor TK, Edmunds IA, Cumming RG, Ruff SJ, Plunkett-Cole MD, Mikk M, Jones RF.The objective of the present study was to determine the incidence of acute spinal cord injuries (ASCI) in all forms of horse riding in New South Wales (NSW) for the period 1976-1996. Other aims of the present study were to compare and contrast ASCI with vertebral column injuries (VCI) without neurological damage and to define appropriate safety measures in relation to spinal injury in horse-riding. Methods: A retrospective review was done of all ASCI cases (n = 32) admitted to the two acute spinal cord injury units in NSW for the cited period. A comparable review of VCI cases (n = 30) admitted...
Ranner W, Gerhards H, Klee W.There is a regularly high proportion of x-ray findings indicating a pathological deterioration of the equine vertebral column which do not correlate with the clinical symptoms. Therefore, palpation remains one of the most important clinical examination methods to determine whether or not a horse is suffering from back pain. The aim of this study was to check the validity of palpation results of horses with an assumed back problem. The palpation results of 167 horses were evaluated in retrospect: If the palpation proceeds under following conditions, positive palpation results agree with an prim...
Johnston C, Holmt K, Faber M, Erichsen C, Eksell P, Drevemo S.The relationship between structure and function is important in the judgement of the horse. Twenty sound riding horses walked and trotted on a treadmill. The movement of the backs of each of the horses was measured using a commercially available movement analysis system. Morphometric, spatiotemporal and kinematic information were correlated to investigate the effect of conformation on movement. Taller and heavier horses seem to have longer thoracic and lumbar backs, and are wider at the pelvis. Horses with longer strides extended and flexed their backs in the caudal saddle region to a greater ...
Faber M, Johnston C, van Weeren PR, Barneveld A.We tested the hypothesis that repeatability of a standardised protocol for quantifying back kinematics is sufficiently high not to prevent its use in the clinical evaluation of horses with back problems. We investigated the extent to which differences between laboratories may affect the results when a standardised protocol is used. As a clinical tool, movement analysis techniques are helpful for the objective and quantitative assessment of kinematics. Knowledge about the repeatability of the kinematic data is very important. The present study investigates the repeatability of back kinematics i...
Stierstorfer B, Eichhorn W, Schmahl W, Brandmüller C, Kaaden OR, Neubauer A.An outbreak of neurological disease occurred in a well-managed riding school. Ataxia and paresis were observed in several horses, five of which became recumbent and were euthanized. Post-mortem analysis revealed scattered haemorrhages along the spinal cord, that were reflected by multiple haemorrhagic foci on formalin-fixed sections, with the thoracic and lumbar segments being the most affected. Pathohistologically, perivascular mononuclear cuffing and axonal swelling, especially in the white matter, were evident. Parallel to the course of disease, alterations in myelin sheets and activation o...
Newton-Clarke MJ, Guffoy MR, Dykes NL, Divers TJ.A haemangiosarcoma in a horse resulted in ataxia affecting all four legs, a low head carriage and a reluctance to flex the neck. Ancillary diagnostic procedures included the analysis of cerebrospinal fluid, standing lateral cervical radiographs and a myelogram. Post mortem a tumour was found which involved the body of the second cervical vertebra and the associated hypaxial muscles, with secondary intravertebral extradural infiltration and focal compressive myelopathy. A histological examination showed that the tumour was a haemangiosarcoma.
Samol MA, Uzal FA, Blanchard PC, Arthur RM, Stover SM.The most prevalent causes of death in racehorses are musculoskeletal injuries, causing ~83% of deaths within the racing industry in California and elsewhere. The vast majority of these injuries have preexisting lesions that predispose to fatal injury. A 4-y-old Thoroughbred colt suffered an acute suspensory apparatus failure, including biaxial proximal sesamoid bone fractures of the right front fetlock, causing loss of support of the fetlock joint and consequent fall with fractures of the cervical and sacral spine. Cervical fracture caused spinal cord damage that resulted in sudden death. A pr...
Sasaki N, Yamada M, Morita Y, Furuoka H, Itoh M, Satoh M, Yamada H.We report a case of EMND in a heavy horse that was bred and trained in Hokkaido, Japan. Clinical symptoms included severe ataxia of all four limbs, tilted head, lethargy, and flaccid lips. Numerous axonal degenerations and swellings were observed in nuclei, mostly in the cerebellar dentate nucleus and the nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve, and in the ventral horn of the spinal cord. In the ventral horn of the spinal cord, neuronal degeneration, swelling, and/or necrosis were observed sporadically. The case was diagnosed as EMND from the clinical symptoms and pathological findings.
Markel MD, Madigan JE, Lichtensteiger CA, Large SM, Hornof WJ.Over a 4-year period, vertebral body abscess was diagnosed in 5 young cattle. The laboratory findings in most of these cases did not suggest a diagnosis of vertebral body abscess. The most important basis for diagnosis of this condition was a thorough neurologic examination. In 4 cases, necropsy revealed abscesses in the lungs or thoracic cavity as well, suggesting that a history of pneumonia preceding paresis may favor the diagnosis of vertebral body abscess.
Gaughan EM, Fubini SL, Dietze A.Over an 8-year period, 14 horses were admitted to the New York State College of Veterinary Medicine for evaluation of fistulous withers. Of the 14 horses, 11 were treated surgically and 3 were not treated. Surgical techniques involved radical excision of the affected soft tissue and spinous processes of affected vertebrae. Recurrence rate was 30%, and these horses required additional surgery to resolve the problem.
Landolt G, Feige K, Grest P.A 13-year-old warmblood mare was presented because of progressive weight loss, general weakness and trembling. On examination the horse stood with its head lowered and the limbs placed under the body. On lifting its head spasms of the neck muscles could be observed. At the same time the horse developed trembling over the lower neck and muscle fasciculations continued over the whole body. Additional signs included frequent recumbency, polyphagia and facial hyperaesthesia. The horse showed no signs of ataxia. Haematology was normal. Blood biochemistry revealed slight increased aspartate aminotra...
Biedrzycki AH, Elane GL. Interspinous ligament desmotomy (ISLD) has been shown to improve the comfort of horses diagnosed with overriding dorsal spinous processes (DSP), but its effects on spine mobility are unknown. To objectively quantify the change in mobility of thoracic vertebrae following ISLD using CT and medical modeling software. Prospective cadaveric manipulation of seven equine thoracolumbar spines collected from T11-L1. Spines were collected from T11-L1 with the musculature intact. Flexion and extension phases were achieved with a ratchet device calibrated to 2000N. Bone volume CT scans were performed ...
Schlacher C, Peham C, Licka T, Schobesberger H.Mechanical properties of the equine back are the bases for realistic modelling of the back, which is recognised as an important step towards improved understanding of the pathogenesis of equine back conditions. Objective: The stiffness of the equine back depends on the direction of the applied force and on the position of the spine. Methods: Fourteen dissected spines were tested in a tensile testing machine. In 3 different positions, simulating dorsoventral, laterolateral and dorsoventral-30 degree rotated movement, force was applied on the dorsal spinous process of T12 to reach an excursion o...
Cudmore LA, Groenendyk JC, Hodge P, Church S.This case report describes neurological signs associated with a pyogranulomatous lesion within the sacral vertebral canal of a horse. The clinical findings included urinary overflow incontinence and reduced anal, perianal and tail tone. The horse failed to respond to medical management and a guarded prognosis for return to athletic performance initiated the decision for euthanasia.
Civello ANE, Dunkel B, Summers BA, Martineau HM.A neurofibroma of granular cell subtype is described in a 7-year-old horse. The horse had a 3-month history of ataxia affecting the forelimbs and hindlimbs, suggesting a C1-C6 neuroanatomical localization. Post-mortem examination revealed an intradural mass arising from the right sixth cervical spinal nerve and compressing the spinal cord. Histologically, the mass was composed largely of wavy spindle cells (a mixture of Schwann cells, perineurial cells and fibroblasts) intimately associated with ropy collagen fibres. Approximately 25% of the spindle cells were swollen and contained densely-pac...
Klide AM.Lumbar and thoracic vertebrae of the extinct horse, Equus occidentalis, were examined for gross and radiographic evidence of overriding spinous processes. Of 2,661 vertebrae examined, 580 had intact spinous processes. Thirty-six intact spinous processes, which appeared grossly similar to overriding spinous processes in the modern domestic horse, E caballus caballus, were radiographed. Of these 36 vertebrae, 2 had radiographic signs compatible with a radiographic diagnosis of overriding spinous processes, ie, radiographically observed lysis and/or sclerosis. Seemingly, weight bearing or other s...
Sweasey D, Patterson DS, Leadon DP.The lipid content of spinal cord, expressed as a percentage of adult values, was considerably higher for newborn foals than for several other species and traces of esterified cholesterol (type A) were only rarely present in horse fetal cord (from 270 days gestational age onwards). This suggested that, at birth, the spinal cord is neurochemically more 'mature' in the horse than in cattle, sheep and pigs. Data for premature foals revealed no lipid abnormality suggestive of myelin immaturity or degeneration.
Wijnberg ID, Graubner C, Auriemma E, van de Belt AJ, Gerber V.Reference values for quantitative electromyography (QEMG) in neck muscles of Royal Dutch Sport horses are lacking. Objective: Determine normative data on quantitative motor unit action potential (QMUP) analysis of serratus ventralis cervicis (SV) and brachiocephalicus (BC) muscle. Methods: Seven adult normal horses (mean age 9.5 standard deviation [SD] ± 2.3 years, mean height 1.64 SD ± 4.5 cm, and mean rectal temperature 37.6 SD ± 0.3°C). Methods: An observational study on QMUP analysis in 6 segments of each muscle was performed with commercial electromyography equipment. Measurements wer...
Bromiley MW.Before a physical therapy and rehabilitation program is suggested, the end requirement must be considered. All physiotherapeutic machines are subject to laboratory screening. In the United States, the approval of the Food and Drug Administration is required; in the United Kingdom, certification by the National Physics Laboratory has been required by law since January 1996. Laboratory experiments are continually conducted to examine and evaluate the effects on tissues of varied electrical waveforms, low-intensity electrical currents, sound waves, and light rays delivered by a variety of therape...
Adams SB, Steckel R, Blevins W.Diskospondylitis was diagnosed in 5 horses admitted to the Purdue University Large Animal Clinic during a 3-year period. Each horse had evidence of cervical pain. Clinical signs and radiography were useful for identifying the diskospondylitis. Cerebrospinal fluid was normal.
Woodie B, Johnson AL, Grant B.Cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy is a common cause of ataxia in horses secondary to spinal cord compression. Early articles describing this problem indicate genetic predisposition as a known risk factor. Further studies have shown the problem is a developmental abnormality which might have genetic predisposition and environmental influences.
Huxtable CR, de Lahunta A, Summers BA, Divers T.Marginal siderosis is recognized in humans as an uncommon clinicopathologic entity characterized by degeneration of neural tissue at the surface of the brain and spinal cord, in association with the accumulation of hemosiderin, and resulting from chronic subarachnoid hemorrhage. The sources of hemorrhage are various and include neoplasms, malformations, cysts, and vasculopathy. Marginal siderosis of the spinal cord due to a myxopapillary ependymoma was diagnosed in a 19-year-old Dutch Warm Blood horse with clinical signs of myelopathy. There is only one previous report of marginal siderosis in...
Scheffer CJ, Blaauw G, Dik KJ, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM.A mini-Shetland stallion was referred with bilateral pruritus localized to the anterior neck. More detailed clinical examination also revealed ataxia, and diagnostic imaging, including pre- and post-contrast computed tomography, revealed an old fracture of C2. Spinal cord compression was diagnosed. The probable causal relation between the fracture, the ataxia, and the localized pruritus seems comparable to the 'contusio cervicalis posterior' in humans, in which spinal cord trauma may cause pruritus in the associated dermatome.
Tokunaga S, Fujiki M, Yabuki A, Misumi K.Cartilage-derived retinoic acid-sensitive protein (CD-RAP)/melanoma inhibitory activity (MIA), which appears abundantly in hypertrophic cartilage at the stage of endochondral ossification, is also detected in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) following spinal cord injury. In this study, the localization of the CD-RAP/MIA molecule in normal tissues of the spine and brain obtained from mice, rats, dogs, cattle and horses was examined using immunohistochemistry with a specific antibody. The positive signals of CD-RAP/MIA were found at nerve cells in the spinal cords of all species and were especially str...
Reardon R, Bailey R, Walmsley J, Heller J, Lischer C.The mechanical properties of equine cervical vertebrae joined by implants have not yet been reported. Locking compression plates (LCP) may provide a useful alternative system to the commonly used stainless steel kerf-cut cylinders (KCC) currently used for fixation of cervical vertebrae in horses. Objective: The objectives of this study were to establish a method for biomechanical testing of equine C4-C5 articulations and to compare the biomechanical properties of cadaveric spines stabilised with KCC and LCP. Methods: Twenty-four equine cadaveric cervical spines were size measured from radiogra...
O'Sullivan S, McGowan CM, Junnila J, Hyytiäinen HK.Impinging dorsal spinous processes (IDSP) are typically diagnosed and graded using radiography, during which the effect of the horses' thoracolumbar posture on the interspinous spaces is not commonly considered. Posture can be altered from a spontaneous, relatively extended, or lordotic, position by manual facilitation of thoracic flexion ('thoracic lift'). This study aimed to ascertain if the thoracic vertebral interspinous space distances were increased by using facilitated thoracic flexion to alter the posture in horses diagnosed with IDSP. Seven horses of mixed breed and sex, median age 9....
Russo D, Castellani G, Chiocchetti R.Spinal ganglion (SG) neurons are subdivided, on the basis of their cytoplasmic aspect at light and electron microscopy, into dark (D) and light (L) neurons. Numerous efforts have been made to find specific markers able to identify D and L neuronal cytotypes. The isolectin B4 (IB4), utilized to identify nonpeptidergic D neurons in mice, unfortunately, has not proved as effective in other species. The 200-kDa neurofilament protein (NF200) is considered as a typical marker of L neurons in the rat, cat, and chick. The aim of this study was to analyze the histological, morphometric, and neurochemic...
Krunajević T, Bergsten G.The clinical and pathological details of a case of ataxia in a 3-month-old colt are described. A marked protrusion into the vertebral canal of the body of the 3rd cervical vertebra was observed. C and C were immovably joined so that the deformity could not be corrected by extension of the spinal column at this point. There was a compression of the spinal cord corresponding to the protrusion. The cause of this luxation could not be established. It may be assumed that the distortion was congenital, or caused by trauma at an early stage and that clinical symptoms could be observed only when, a ma...
Kernot N, Butler R, Randle H.Conditions of the equine caudal neck (C5-C7) are thought to be associated with various clinical signs. However, little investigation has been undertaken to isolate clinical indicators associated with specific conditions of the equine caudal cervical spine. This systematic review aimed to evaluate associations of clinical signs with anatomical malformation of caudal cervical vertebrae, spinal cord compression of the caudal cervical spine, and arthropathy of the caudal cervical articular process joints (APJs). A literature search was carried out using Google Scholar in accordance with PRISMA (Pr...
Boldt E.Horses 15 years of age and older now account for a significant portion of the equine population. Integrative therapies can provide important diagnostic and treatment tools for managing and maintaining the health of geriatric horses. Aged horses are often afflicted with chronic disease processes that are difficult to effectively manage with conventional medicinal approaches, such as laminitis and osteoarthritis. Diagnostic and therapeutic approaches using integrative therapies, such as acupuncture and spinal manipulation, are presented in this article for managing aged horses with metabolic dis...
Clayton HM, Belock B, Lavagnino M, Kaiser LJ.The objectives of this study were to measure forces and pressure profiles when riding with a conventional saddle compared to bareback riding. An electronic pressure mat was used to compare contact area, mean total force and pressure variables for one rider riding seven horses at sitting trot with a conventional saddle or bareback. The use of a saddle was associated with a larger contact area and higher mean total force compared with the bareback condition. Mass normalized mean total force for bareback riding was lower than expected based on the rider's body mass, suggesting that shear forces e...
