The equine spine is a complex structure composed of numerous vertebrae that provide support, facilitate movement, and protect the spinal cord. It is divided into several regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal, each contributing to the overall biomechanics and flexibility of the horse. The spine plays a significant role in the horse's locomotion, posture, and ability to perform various tasks. Research on the equine spine encompasses studies on its anatomy, function, and the impact of various conditions such as injuries, deformities, and age-related changes. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the structural and functional aspects of the equine spine, as well as its role in equine health and performance.
Mittelman NS, Divers TJ, Engiles JB, Gerhold R, Ness S, Scrivani PV, Southard T, Johnson AL.There are reports of horses with acute onset acquired cervical scoliosis and cutaneous analgesia. The underlying dorsal gray column myelitis that produces these neurologic signs has been only presumptively attributed to migration of Parelaphostrongylus tenuis within the spinal cord. Despite previous confirmation brain by polymerase chain reaction testing, of P. tenuis within the brain of horses by polymerase chain reaction testing, genetic testing has failed to definitively identify the presence of this parasite in cases of equine myelitis. This case report provides molecular confirmation via ...
Ehrle A, Ressel L, Ricci E, Singer ER.Pain related to the osseous thoracolumbar spine is common in the equine athlete, with minimal information available regarding soft tissue pathology. The aims of this study were to describe the anatomy of the equine SSL and ISL (supraspinous and interspinous ligaments) in detail and to assess the innervation of the ligaments and their myofascial attachments including the thoracolumbar fascia. Ten equine thoracolumbar spines (T15-L1) were dissected to define structure and anatomy of the SSL, ISL and adjacent myofascial attachments. Morphological evaluation included histology, electron microscopy...
Forterre F, Stoffel MH, Koch C, Precht C, Waschk M, Bürki A.Atlantoaxial instability has been reported in humans, dogs, equids and ruminants. The functional role of the atlantoaxial ligaments has only been described rudimentarily in equids and ruminants. The goal of the present cadaveric study was to compare the anatomy between the different species and to comparatively assess the role of the stabilizing ligaments of the atlantoaxial joint under sagittal shear loading in canine, equine, and bovine cervical spines. Methods: Three equine, bovine, and canine cadaveric specimens were investigated. Biomechanical testing was performed using a purpose built s...
Greve L, Pfau T, Dyson S.Equine movement symmetry is changed when turning, which may induce alterations in thoracolumbosacral kinematics; however, this has not previously been investigated. Our objectives were to document thoracolumbar movement in subjectively sound horses comparing straight lines with circles on both reins and to relate these observations to the objectively determined symmetry/asymmetry of hindlimb gait. Fourteen non-lame horses were assessed prospectively in a non-random, cross-sectional survey. The horses were trotted in straight lines and lunged on both reins and inertial sensor data collected at ...
Martin P, Cheze L, Pourcelot P, Desquilbet L, Duray L, Chateau H.Many factors associated with the saddle and the rider could produce pain in horses thus reducing performance. However, studies of horse-saddle-rider interactions are limited and determining their effects remains challenging. The aim of this study was to test a novel method for assessing equine thoracic and lumbar spinal movement under the saddle and collect data during trotting. Back movement was measured using inertial measurement units (n = 5) fixed at the levels of thoracic vertebrae T6, T12 and T16, and lumbar vertebrae L2 and L5. To compare unridden and ridden conditions, three horses...
Djernaes JD, Nielsen JV, Berg LC.The widths of spaces between the thoracolumbar processi spinosi (interspinous spaces) are frequently assessed using radiography in sports horses; however effects of varying X-ray beam angles and geometric distortion have not been previously described. The aim of this prospective, observational study was to determine whether X-ray beam angle has an effect on apparent widths of interspinous spaces. Thoracolumbar spine specimens were collected from six equine cadavers and left-right lateral radiographs and sagittal and dorsal reconstructed computed tomographic (CT) images were acquired. Sequentia...
Endruweit M, Dargel J, Siewe J, Becker I, Sobottke R.Background: Vaulting is the least studied equestrian sports regarding the occurrence of injuries. As its sequences of motion do not compare to riding, vaulting must be assessed separately. Material and Methods: This retrospective, questionnaire-aided survey was aimed to gain insight into the overall frequency of injuries among equestrian vaulters. The second part of the study looked into the knee injuries that occurred. Survey forms were sent to 60 vaulting and equestrian clubs all over Germany, making for a response rate of 63 %. Results: 95 % of 624 responding athletes were female. The p...
Yamada K, Sato F, Hada T, Horiuchi N, Ikeda H, Nishihara K, Sasaki N, Kobayashi Y, Nambo Y.Five Thoroughbred foals (age, 8-33 weeks; median age, 31 weeks; weight, 122-270 kg; median weight, 249 kg) exhibiting ataxia with suspected cervical myelopathy (n=4) and limb malformation (n=1) were subjected to computed tomographic (CT) myelography. The areas of the subarachnoid space and cervical cord were measured on transverse CT images. The area of the cervical cord was divided by the area of subarachnoid space, and stenosis ratios were quantitatively evaluated and compared on the basis of histopathological examination. The sites with a ratio above 52.8% could have been primary lesion sit...
Singh S, Sardhara J, Singh AK, Srivastava AK, Bhaisora KS, Das KK, Mehrotra A, Sahu RN, Jaiswal AK, Behari S.This study aims to focus on a rare presentation of spinal hydatid cyst as cauda equine syndrome and misdiagnosed as intradural extramedullary (IDEM) benign lesion on magnetic resonance imaging. In this article, we report a case of spinal hydatid cyst masquerading as IDEM tumor, and intraoperatively, we accidently find clumped granuloma with severe arachnoiditis and hydatid cyst in lumber region, which was present as bilateral S1 radiculopathy with cauda equina syndrome. An 11-year-old boy who presented with symptoms and signs of cauda equina syndrome and planned for surgical excision. His radi...
García Liñeiro JA, Graziotti GH, Rodríguez Menéndez JM, Ríos CM, Affricano NO, Victorica CL.The multifidus muscle fascicles of horses attach to vertebral spinous processes after crossing between one to six metameres. The fascicles within one or two metameres are difficult to distinguish in horses. A vertebral motion segment is anatomically formed by two adjacent vertebrae and the interposed soft tissue structures, and excessive mobility of a vertebral motion segment frequently causes osteoarthropathies in sport horses. The importance of the equine multifidus muscle as a vertebral motion segment stabilizer has been demonstrated; however, there is scant documentation of the structure a...
Husulak ML, Lohmann KL, Gabadage K, Wojnarowicz C, Marqués FJ.Two horses from Saskatchewan were presented with signs of sweating, muscle fasciculations, weight loss, and generalized weakness. The horses were diagnosed with equine motor neuron disease (EMND), by histological assessment of a spinal accessory nerve or sacrocaudalis dorsalis medialis muscle biopsy. This is the first report of EMND in western Canada. Maladie équine des motoneurones chez 2 chevaux de la Saskatchewan. Deux chevaux de la Saskatchewan ont été présentés avec des signes de sudation, de fibrillations musculaires, de perte de poids et de faiblesse généralisée. On a diagnostiq...
Veraa S, Bergmann W, van den Belt AJ, Wijnberg I, Back W.Diagnostic imaging is one of the pillars in the clinical workup of horses with clinical signs of cervical spinal disease. An improved awareness of morphologic variations in equine cervical vertebrae would be helpful for interpreting findings. The aim of this anatomic study was to describe CT variations in left-right symmetry and morphology of the cervical and cervicothoracic vertebrae in a sample of horses. Postmortem CT examinations of the cervical spine for horses without congenital growth disorders were prospectively and retrospectively recruited. A total of 78 horses (27 foals, 51 mature h...
Bassuino DM, Konradt G, Cruz RA, Silva GS, Gomes DC, Pavarini SP, Driemeier D.Twenty-six cattle and 7 horses were diagnosed with rabies. Samples of brain and spinal cord were processed for hematoxylin and eosin staining and immunohistochemistry (IHC). In addition, refrigerated fragments of brain and spinal cord were tested by direct fluorescent antibody test and intracerebral inoculation in mice. Statistical analyses and Fisher exact test were performed by commercial software. Histologic lesions were observed in the spinal cord in all of the cattle and horses. Inflammatory lesions in horses were moderate at the thoracic, lumbar, and sacral levels, and marked at the lumb...
Jones KE.The specialization of equid limbs for cursoriality is a classic case of adaptive evolution, but the role of the axial skeleton in this famous transition is not well understood. Extant horses are extremely fast and efficient runners, which use a stiff-backed gallop with reduced bending of the lumbar region relative to other mammals. This study tests the hypothesis that stiff-backed running in horses evolved in response to evolutionary increases in body size by examining lumbar joint shape from a broad sample of fossil equids in a phylogenetic context. Lumbar joint shape scaling suggests that st...
Haussler KK.Joint mobilization and manipulation provide important diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for addressing musculoskeletal issues in veterinary medicine. Soft tissue and joint mobilization are used to assess the quality and quantity of joint range of motion and as a primary means of treating musculoskeletal disorders. Spinal manipulation was shown to be effective for reducing pain, improving flexibility, reducing muscle tone, and improving symmetry of spinal kinematics in horses. Because of potential misuse and safety issues, joint mobilization and manipulative therapies should be provided onl...
Díez de Castro E, Zafra R, Acevedo LM, Pérez J, Acosta I, Rivero JL, Aguilera-Tejero E.Equine motor neuron disease (EMND) is a neuromuscular disorder that affects adult horses. Although EMND has been linked to vitamin E deficiency, its etiopathogenesis is poorly understood. Objective: To describe clinical features, laboratory results, and postmortem findings in a series of young horses with motor neuron disease (MND). Methods: A herd of 15 young Andalusian horses with weakness, weight loss, muscle atrophy, and muscle fasciculations related to restricted intake of green forage. Methods: A case series is presented in which horses were subjected to a clinical examination and plasma...
Clayton HM.The central body axis or core is a key component in controlling body posture and providing a stable platform for limb movements and generation of locomotor forces. Persistent dysfunction of the deep stabilizing muscles seems to be common in horses indicating a need for core training exercises to restore normal function. Core training should be performed throughout the horse's athletic career to maintain a healthy back and used therapeutically when back pain is identified. This article reviews the structure and function of the equine thoracolumbar spine with special reference to function, dysfu...
Schröter C, Schulte-Sutum A, Busch M, Winkelmann M, Macke C, Zeckey C, Krettek C, Mommsen P.The cervical spine is considered fragile and vulnerable to injuries in equestrian sport. This retrospective study investigates the injury pattern and severity. Patients of the medical university in Hannover from the years 2006-2011, who had an equestrian accident, were identified. Patients who had been injured in the course of their work were excluded. Results counted with a p-value < 0.05 were considered significant. In 13.1% of patients, there were 71 cervical spine injuries (92.4% female; 7.6% male). The mean age was 27.1 ± 13.2 years. Of these, 86.4% associated the injury to the r...
Taylor KR, MacKay RJ, Nelson EA, Stieler AL, Roberts JF, Castleman WL.Two horses euthanized for neurologic deficits were diagnosed with hamartomatous myelodysplasia of the spinal cord. One was a 5-week-old Holsteiner colt exhibiting spasms of muscle rigidity in the extensor muscles of the limbs and epaxial muscles, and the other was a 3-year-old Thoroughbred colt exhibiting progressive ataxia and hypermetria in the pelvic limbs. Each had focal disorganization of the white and gray matter of the spinal cord forming a mass interspersed with neurons, glial cells, and disoriented axon bundles. In the Holsteiner colt, the mass was at the level of C5 and included isla...
McGowan CM, Cottriall S.Physical therapy (physiotherapy, or PT) can be broadly defined as the restoration of movement and function and includes assessment, treatment, and rehabilitation. This review outlines the history, definition, and regulation of PT, followed by the core scientific principles of PT. Because musculoskeletal physiotherapy is the predominant subdiscipline in equine PT, encompassing poor performance, back pain syndromes, other musculoskeletal disorders, and some neuromuscular disorders, the sciences of functional biomechanics, neuromotor control, and the sensorimotor system in the spine, pelvis, and ...
Martin P, Cheze L, Pourcelot P, Desquilbet L, Duray L, Chateau H.Knowledge about the horse-saddle-rider interaction remains limited. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of the rider׳s position at rising trot on the pressure distribution, spine movements, stirrups forces and locomotion of the horse. The horse׳s back movements were measured using IMUs fixed at the levels of thoracic (T6, T12, T16) and lumbar (L2, L5) vertebrae, the pressure distribution using a pressure mat and stirrups forces using force sensors. The horse׳s and rider׳s approximated centres of mass (COM) were calculated using 2D reflective markers. To compare both trot phases...
Rochais C, Fureix C, Lesimple C, Hausberger M.Chronic pain is thought to affect patients' cognitive functioning, including attention. Loss of attention is likely to have an impact on the execution of daily tasks, and, therefore, to have negative effects. However, relationships between chronic pain and cognitive deficits are still debated. Pre-clinical studies using laboratory animals prove useful to model pain-related cognitive impairment, but animal models had to predict effects in the real world. This study investigates attentional engagement of domestic horses by comparing observations in a home setting and evaluations of vertebral dis...
Nankervis KJ, Finney P, Launder L.Water treadmill exercise can be incorporated into the rehabilitation programmes of horses recovering from back pathology, yet little is known about the effect of this type of exercise on thoracolumbar movement ranges. Objective: To measure the flexion-extension range of motion (FE ROM) of the thoracolumbar spine and pelvic vertical displacement during water treadmill walking at 3 water depths and compare these with the control condition. Methods: Within-subject trial using a crossover design in healthy horses. Methods: A total of 14 horses walked at 0.8 m/s on a water treadmill for 3 min at ea...
Dąbek J, Koczy B, Piotrkowicz J.Horse riding becoming increasingly common and popular form of recreation and leisure activities. However, enforced, proper posture while riding a horse, may contribute to decrease mobility of spine and lead to occurrence back pain. Objective: The aim of this study was to assess the impact of the systematic training of horse riding on the global mobility of the spine and back pain prevalence in-training horse riders professionally and recreational. Methods: The study included 70 horse riders. The subjects were divided into two groups: 1) professional horse riders (n=50; 71.43%) or 2) a group of...
Schicho A, Einwag D, Eickhoff A, Richter PH, Riepl C.Injuries to the spinal cord are not only dreaded because of the high risks existing during the acute phase, but also because of their potential long-term sequelae. Horseback riding also poses a high risk of spinal injuries. We therefore evaluated the most frequent characteristics of accidents leading to long-term sequelae, the primary long-term discomfort resulting from such injuries caused by horseback riding accidents and the way injured persons changed their behaviour after the accidents. Methods: Our study included all cases of horseback riding injuries registered in the Department of Trau...
Lotstra RJ, van den Broek J, Power T, Marr CM, Wijnberg ID.Atrial fibrillation is a common equine arrhythmia. Quinidine alone, or with digoxin are common treatments. Studies on outcome in Warmblood populations in which duration of the AF is often unknown are limited. Objective: To identify the factors that are associated with the success of full treatment cardioversion with oral medication, and establish whether there are differences in these factors between institutions. Methods: Retrospective case series using patient records of Equine University Clinic of Utrecht University and Rossdales Equine Hospital, Newmarket. Methods: Forty-nine horses treate...
Vanschandevijl K, Nollet H, Vercauteren G, Ducatelle R, Deprez P.Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is an electrophysiological technique used to elicit motor evoked potentials (MMEPs) to evaluate the functional integrity of the descending motor fibres in the spinal cord. Successful application of the technique was reported in horses with spinal cord compression. However, limited data are available on the correlation of TMS with histopathological changes. Objective: To determine sensitivity of TMS for assessing the integrity of the spinal cord in horses with compressive lesions of the spinal cord. Methods: Case series. Methods: The study was conducted o...
Rijckaert J, Pardon B, Saey V, Raes E, Van Ham L, Ducatelle R, van Loon G, Deprez P.Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and recording of magnetic motor evoked potentials (MMEP) can detect neurological dysfunction in horses but cutoff values based on confirmed spinal cord dysfunction are lacking. Objective: To determine latency time cutoff for neurological dysfunction. Methods: Five control horses and 17 horses with proprioceptive ataxia. Methods: Case-control study with receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, based on diagnostic imaging, TMS, and histopathological findings. Horses were included if all 3 examinations were performed. Results: Diagnostic imaging an...
Bollwein A, Hänichen T.The cervical vertebral column of 103 horses of different age (42 weeks old fetus to 23 years) were examined with respect to age-related changes of the intervertebral disks. On gross examination the cervical intervertebral disks in the horse miss a pulpy nucleus but consist of a fibrocartilaginous tissue only, which is in contrast to literature. Age-related degenerative lesions as disintegration of connective tissue fibers leading to partial or complete loss of connection between the disks were found. In the more severe cases a yellow discoloration of the separated disks could be seen. Incidenc...
Mayaki AM, Abdul Razak IS, Adzahan NM, Mazlan M, Rasedee A.The clinical presentation of horses with back pain (BP) vary considerably with most horse's willingness to take part in athletic or riding purpose becoming impossible. However, there are some clinical features that are directly responsible for the loss or failure of performance. Objective: To investigate the clinical features of the thoracolumbar region associated with BP in horses and to use some of the clinical features to classify equine BP. Methods: Twenty-four horses comprised of 14 with BP and 10 apparently healthy horses were assessed for clinical abnormality that best differentiate BP ...
Foss RR, Genetzky RM, Riedesel EA, Graham C.Two horses with ataxia of all four limbs were found to have cervical intervertebral disc protrusion. Severe pelvic limb ataxia, proprioceptive deficits and spasticity were present in both horses with similar but less severe signs in the thoracic limbs. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis was within normal limits. Metrizamide myelography allowed definitive diagnosis in one case when a compression of the spinal cord was demonstrated at the level of the second intervertebral space. In the second case, an intervertebral disc protrusion between cervical vertebrae 6 and 7 was found at necropsy. Fiber degen...
Traver DS, Moore JN, Thornburg LP, Johnson JH, Coffman JR.An aged gray stallion was examined because of fullminating posterior paresis, bladder paralysis, and perineal anesthesia. Lower motor neuron dysfunction was detected at the lumbosacral level of the spinal cord, and cerebrospinal fluid was yellow. After brief supportive treatment, the horse died. Necropsy revealed a single epidural melanoma at L5-6. The absence of cutaneous melanotic growth, absence of organ involvement, and extensive vertebral remodeling indicated the neoplasm to have been primary and to have been present for an extended period. Neurologic dysfunction was acute and progressive...
Nollet H, Van Ham L, Verschooten F, Vanderstraeten G, Deprez P.To determine the usefulness of magnetic motor-evoked potentials (MMEPs) for assessing the integrity of the cervical, thoracic, and thoracolumbar spinal cord in horses with bilateral hind limb ataxia. Methods: 9 horses and 1 donkey with bilateral hind limb ataxia of various degrees. Methods: The motor cortex was stimulated magnetically, and MMEPs were recorded bilaterally from the extensor carpi radialis and cranial tibial muscles. Results: In 5 horses and 1 donkey, MMEPs with normal onset latencies and peak-to-peak amplitude were recorded from the extensor carpi radialis muscles, whereas abnor...
Cousty M, Retureau C, Tricaud C, Geffroy O, Caure S.The radiographs of 102 French trotters presented with signs of back pain were reviewed retrospectively, and a control group of 16 French trotters without back pain was analysed. The age, sex, type of race, number of starts, earnings and index of performance were recorded. Radiological evaluation was performed from the 14th thoracic (T14) to the third lumbar (L3) vertebra. Impingement of the spinous processes (ISP), periarticular proliferation of synovial intervertebral articulations (PP-SIA) and sclerosis of SIA (S-SIA) were located and graded. Radiological lesions were identified in 10 (62 pe...
Meneses CS, Müller HY, Herzberg DE, Uberti B, Werner MP, Bustamante HA.To determine the microglial and astrocyte response to painful lameness in horses. Methods: Ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression, cell density and morphology were determined through immunofluorescence within the dorsal horn of equine spinal cord. Methods: A total of five adult horses with acute or chronic unilateral lameness, previously scheduled for euthanasia. Methods: Musculoskeletal lameness was evaluated in five horses through visual evaluation according to clinical guidelines. Spinal cord samples were obtained immediately...
Murray R, Mackechnie-Guire R, Fisher M, Fairfax V.Back pain is frequently recognized in racehorses, but saddle fit and design are rarely assessed. In sport horses, relationships between horse-saddle interaction, back pain, and altered kinematics are established, but few studies investigating horse-saddle interaction in racehorses exist. We hypothesized that reducing pressures under saddles at thoracic (T) vertebrae 10-13 in galloping racehorses is associated with improved limb and lumbosacral kinematics. The objectives of the study were to (1) determine pressure magnitude/distribution under 3 frequently used race-exercise saddles and a saddle...
Brown KA, Davidson EJ, Ortved K, Ross MW, Stefanovski D, Wulster KB, Levine DG.To report the long-term outcome of horses treated with interspinous ligament desmotomy (ISLD) for pain associated with overriding dorsal spinous processes (ORDSP) and determine the influence of preoperative diagnostic analgesia on long-term outcome. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: Eighteen horses. Methods: Data were collected from horses presenting for ISLD to the University of Pennsylvania New Bolton Center between January 2013 and May 2018. Follow-up of ≥3 months postsurgically was obtained from the owner, trainer, or referring veterinarian. Long-term improvement was compared betw...
Peham C, Schobesberger H.Diagnosis of back problems in equine orthopedics can be a difficult task. The aim of our study was to develop a new method for estimating the stiffness of the equine back in vivo. We measured the activity of the long back muscle at two locations on both sides at thoracic vertebrae T12 and T16 of 15 horses flexing and extending their back at stance using telemetric surface electromyography, while simultaneously recording the motion of the back with a video camera system. Out of these paired data sets we computed a transfer function in the frequency domain and evaluated its capability of capturi...
De Cocq P, Prinsen H, Springer NC, van Weeren PR, Schreuder M, Muller M, van Leeuwen JL.During trot, the rider can either rise from the saddle during every stride or remain seated. Rising trot is used frequently because it is widely assumed that it decreases the loading of the equine back. This has, however, not been demonstrated in an objective study. Objective: To determine the effects of rising and sitting trot on the movements of the horse. Objective: Sitting trot has more extending effect on the horse's back than rising trot and also results in a higher head and neck position. Methods: Twelve horses and one rider were used. Kinematic data were captured at trot during over gr...
Jones KE.The thoracolumbar region is clinically important in horses; however, the link between joint mobility and bony joint morphology has not been tested quantitatively. Objective: To establish which aspects of vertebral morphology correlate with ex vivo range of motion in the thoracolumbar region of Equus caballus, and demonstrate methodologies for linking vertebral form and function. Methods: Morphometric study of osteological specimens. Methods: A digital model was created of a disarticulated thoracolumbar region to examine bone-to-bone interactions during in silico bending. Linear measurements a...
Pusterla N, Wilson WD, Conrad PA, Mapes S, Leutenegger CM.To determine gene transcription for cytokines in nucleated cells in CSF of horses without neurologic signs or with cervical stenotic myelopathy (CSM), West Nile virus (WNV) encephalitis, equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM), or spinal cord trauma. Methods: 41 horses (no neurologic signs [n = 12], CSM [8], WNV encephalitis [9], EPM [6], and spinal cord trauma [6]). Methods: Total RNA was extracted from nucleated cells and converted into cDNA. Gene expression was measured by use of real-time PCR assay and final quantitation via the comparative threshold cycle method. Results: Cytokine genes ...
Funakoshi R, Masuda K, Uchiyama H, Ohta M.The study aimed to clarify the regularity of the motions of horse's back, rider's pelvis and spine associated with improvement of rider's dynamic trunk alignment. The study used a crossover design, with exercise using the horseback riding simulator (simulator hereafter) as the control condition. The experiments were conducted at Tokyo University of Agriculture Bio-therapy Center. The sample consisted of 20 healthy volunteers age 20-23 years. Participants performed 15-min sessions of horseback riding with a Hokkaido Pony and exercise using the simulator in experiments separated by ≥2 weeks. S...
Gilmour JS, Fraser JA.An 8-month old Welsh Cob filly had shown progressive ataxia of the hindquarters since about 3 months of age. Autopsy revealed a venous malformation resulting in malacia in the ninth thoracic segment of the spinal cord. It is proposed that the tissue destruction associated with this congenital lesion gave rise to the ataxia.
Ranner W, Gerhards H, Klee W.There is a regularly high proportion of x-ray findings indicating a pathological deterioration of the equine vertebral column which do not correlate with the clinical symptoms. Therefore, palpation remains one of the most important clinical examination methods to determine whether or not a horse is suffering from back pain. The aim of this study was to check the validity of palpation results of horses with an assumed back problem. The palpation results of 167 horses were evaluated in retrospect: If the palpation proceeds under following conditions, positive palpation results agree with an prim...
Srinivasan V, Pierre C, Plog B, Srinivasan K, Petraglia AL, Huang JH.Equestrian sports can result in a variety of injuries to the nervous system due to many factors. We describe our series of 80 patients with injuries sustained during participation in equestrian sports. Results: All patients seen at the regional trauma center with injuries associated with equestrian sports between 2003 and 2011 were reviewed; 80 patients were identified. Fifty-four per cent were female and the average age was 37 years (2·2-79·3). The mean injury severity score (ISS) was 9·9 ± 0·7. Only two patients had documented helmet use. Glasgow coma score (GCS) was 15 in 93% of patien...
Furr MO, Anver M, Wise M.Intervertebral disk prolapse was diagnosed in a mature horse with clinical signs of caudal ataxia. Radiography and myelography demonstrated a collapsed intervertebral space and loss of the dorsal and ventral dye columns. Results of CSF analysis were normal, as were a CBC and serum biochemical profile. High CSF WBC count and high CSF creatine kinase activity were noticed following acute neurologic deterioration. While common in certain breeds of dogs, intervertebral disk prolapse is rarely reported in horses. It should be considered in the differential diagnosis of horses with caudal ataxia.
Holm KR, Wennerstrand J, Lagerquist U, Eksell R, Johnston C.Diagnostic infiltration of local anaesthetic solution is commonly used in cases of equine back pain. Evaluation is subjective and it is not known how local analgesia of the back affects horses without clinical signs of back pain. Objective: To evaluate the effect of infiltration of local anaesthetics on the movement of the back in horses without clinical signs of back pain, and to evaluate the usefulness of kinematic studies as an objective and quantitative tool in evaluating local analgesia in clinical practice. Methods: The kinematics of the back in 10 clinically sound horses were measured o...
Estell K, Spriet M, Phillips KL, Aleman M, Finno CJ.Previously published myelographic studies do not report findings at the junction between the seventh cervical (C7) and first thoracic vertebrae (T1). Modern digital radiographic equipment allows improved visualization of C7-T1. Based on clinical experience, we hypothesized that 50% reduction of the dorsal myelographic column or 20% reduction of the dural diameter, criteria commonly used as a supportive finding for spinal cord compression in the cervical vertebral column, do not apply at C7-T1. A myelographic study was performed on 12 healthy, neurologically normal horses. Our hypothesis was co...
Veraa S, Scheffer CJW, Smeets DHM, de Bruin RB, Hoogendoorn AC, Vernooij JCM, Nielen M, Back W.Intervertebral disc disease, as well as the associated alteration of the radiographic intervertebral disc space width, has been reported in horses. Disc height index (DHI) has proven to be an accurate and objective parameter in other species but data related to this parameter are lacking in horses. Therefore, the aims of this retrospective longitudinal diagnostic accuracy study were (a) to evaluate the reliability of measurements within and between observers of the equine Disc Width Index (EDWI) as a parameter for radiographic equine cervical intervertebral disc space width, and (b) to evaluat...
Licka T, Peham C, Zohmann E.The aim of this study was to establish basic reference data for evaluating 3-dimensional movement of the equine back at the trot. In 22 mature horses without any clinical signs of back pain, the movement of the back was measured during trotting on a treadmill with a system for motion analysis. The position of the markers placed on the head, hooves, skin above the spinous processes of T5, T10, T16, L3 and on 2 of the sacral spines was recorded. The results of all movements were expressed in percent of the horse's height at its withers. At the trot, the maximum lateral movement at the head was 1...
Abdel Ghafar MA, Abdelraouf OR, Abdel-Aziem AA, Elnegamy TE, Mohamed ME, Yehia AM, Mousa GS.Idiopathic scoliosis is a common spinal malalignment that negatively impacts the respiratory system and physical conditioning in adolescents. Equine-assisted therapy comprises therapeutic horseback riding that optimizes physical performance and mobility in a range of contexts. However, the influence of equine-assisted therapy on pulmonary function remains unclear. Objective: To examine the impact of 10 weeks of hippotherapy combined with Schroth exercises on pulmonary function and aerobic capacity in adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis. Methods: A randomized controlled trial including 45 pat...
Rovel T, Zimmerman M, Duchateau L, Adriaensen E, Mariën T, Saunders JH, Vanderperren K.To quantify the degree of dural compression and assess the association between site and direction of compression and articular process (AP) size and degree of dural compression with CT myelography. 26 client-oriented horses with ataxia. Spinal cord-to-dura and AP-to-cross-sectional area of the C6 body ratios (APBRs) were calculated for each noncompressive site and site that had > 50% compression of the subarachnoid space. Site of maximum compression had the largest spinal cord-to-dura ratio. Fisher exact test and linear regression analyses were used to assess the association between site an...
Haussler KK, Stover SM, Willits NH.To describe the prevalence, characteristics, and severity of soft-tissue and osseous lesions in the caudal portion of the thoracic and lumbosacral vertebral column and pelvis in Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: 36 Thoroughbred racehorses that died or were euthanatized at California racetracks between October 1993 and July 1994. Methods: Lumbosacral and pelvic specimens were collected and visually examined for soft-tissue and osseous lesions. Results: Acute sacroiliac joint injury was observed in 2 specimens. Signs of chronic laxity or subluxation of the sacroiliac joint were not observed in a...
Jacklin BD, Minshall GJ, Wright IM.Surgical management for overriding spinous processes of the thoracolumbar vertebrae (SPs) is often favoured when conservative therapies have failed, pathology is severe, or in competition horses constrained by drug withdrawal periods. Objective: To evaluate whether subtotal (cranial wedge) ostectomy represents an effective treatment for overriding SPs, with short surgery time and low complication rates, maintains the contour of the spine and produces a functionally and cosmetically better outcome than previously reported surgical techniques for management of overriding/impinging SPs. Methods: ...
Hurcombe SD, Morris TB, VanderBroek AR, Habecker P, Wulster K, Hopster K.Horses underwent either cervical epidural space (CES) catheterization or subarachnoid space (SAS) catheterization while restrained in stocks, under deep sedation (detomidine and morphine) and local anesthesia (mepivacaine 2%) block. Catheters were placed under ultrasound guidance with visualization of the dura, SAS, and spinal cord between the first (C1) and second (C2) cervical vertebrae. Following sedation and sterile skin preparation, operator 1 placed under ultrasound guidance, a 6- or 8-inch Tuohy needle with the bevel oriented caudally. For CES, a 6-inch Touhy needle was used with the ha...
Berner D, Winter K, Brehm W, Gerlach K.Reductions in distances between dorsal spinous processes on radiographs are used as criteria for the diagnosis of impingement of the thoracic dorsal spinous processes in horses but are potentially altered by spine motion and different head and neck positions. Objective: To determine the influence of head and neck positions on intervertebral distances between dorsal spinous processes on radiographs of thoracic spines of clinically sound horses. Methods: Lateral-lateral radiographs were obtained from 23 horses in 3 head and neck positions. The width of the thoracic dorsal spinous processes and i...
