Stress in horses refers to the physiological and behavioral responses of equines to various stressors, including environmental changes, social dynamics, and physical exertion. These responses can manifest through alterations in heart rate, cortisol levels, and behavior, among other indicators. Stress can affect a horse's overall health, performance, and welfare, making it a significant area of study in equine research. This topic encompasses research on identifying stressors, measuring stress responses, and understanding the implications of stress on equine health and behavior. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanisms, effects, and management of stress in horses.
Rankins EM, Manso Filho HC, Malinowski K, McKeever KH.Horses' muscular tension during acute stress remains unexplored. Our aim was to assess muscular, behavioral, cortisol, and hematocrit responses to social isolation (ISO), novel object exposure (NOV), and sham clipping (CLIP). Altered stress responses were expected. Eight mature Standardbred horses (four mares and four geldings) were exposed to acute stressors and a control period (CON) in a balanced, replicated 4×4 Latin Square experimental design with 3 min treatment periods and 10 min washout periods. Surface electromyography collected from the masseter, brachiocephalas, cervical trapeziu...
Kaps M, Lutzer A, Gautier C, Nagel C, Aurich J, Aurich C.Horse mares are frequently treated with the progestin altrenogest with the aim to suppress estrous behavior and its negative impact on equestrian performance. Progestogens, however, also have sedative effects in males, and females of different species. The aim of our study was therefore to investigate altrenogest-induced changes in the stress response of female horses during initial equestrian training. Three-yr-old Warmblood mares were randomly assigned to treatment with altrenogest (ALT; 0.044 mg/kg once daily; n = 6) or sunflower oil (CON; n = 5) for 12 wk during training. At predefined...
Ott EC, Cavinder CA, Wang S, Smith T, Lemley CO, Dinh TTN.Oxidative stress caused by routine physical stressors may negatively impact the performance of equine athletes; thus, the present study identifies oxidative biomarkers in the blood plasma of exercising horses. Stock-type horses were subject to a standardized moderate-intensity exercise protocol 3 times per week for 8 wk. Exercise protocol followed NRC guidelines consisting of 30% walk, 55% trot, and 15% canter, with a target heart rate (HR) of 90 BPM. Blood plasma was collected in wk 1, 2, 7, and 8 immediately before and 0, 30, 60, and 90 min after exercise and analyzed for total antioxidant...
Arfuso F, Piccione G, Trimarchi F, Panzera MF, Giannetto C.Horse trekking is a non-competitive sport that, as other kinds of exercise, involves skeletal muscle effort and may implicate significant energy expenditure leading to stress. The aim of the current study was to assess the effect of trekking on metabolic and stress response as well as muscle damage markers in clinically healthy horses. Thirty horses were equally divided in 3 groups according to trekking course: Group A (trekking course 15 km long), Group B (trekking course 35 km long starting;), Group C (three trekking courses for three consecutive days; during the first day the trekking cours...
Neill CL, Hansen CR, Salois M.The purpose of this study is to estimate the economic cost of burnout in the veterinary profession and highlight the financial reasons why the industry should address the burnout crisis from an organizational perspective. Using data from 5,786 associate veterinarians in private practice, information was obtained using employment information related to compensation, work hours, hour preferences, and job turnover. Burnout was measured using the Professional Quality of Life Scale and used to calculate conditional probabilities on turnover and reduced working hours due to burnout. Lost revenue fro...
Júnior ÂMCA, da Silva AH, Bastos FL, Seidner JT, Filho LAJM, Faleiros RR, Gobesso AAO.This study evaluated the incidence of gastritis in foals subjected to different weaning management methods. Sixteen crossbreed foals [230 ± 35 kg], were enrolled in an experiment with a randomized block design. After weaning, foals were housed in either individual pens or a group pen. Gastritis in the foals was evaluated through gastroscopy. Data were submitted to analysis of variance by the non-parametric Friedman test at 0.05 significance level. Before weaning, gastritis was observed in 87.5% of the foals, and the scores for the number of gastric lesions were 2.10 and 1.56 for foals housed ...
Hodgson E, Rooney NJ, Hockenhull J.In Africa, wildlife-watching experiences create substantial revenue from tourists that can finance wildlife conservation. Horseback safaris, where an experienced guide takes guests through the bush on horseback to observe plains game species, are a popular activity. Close encounters between ridden horses and game species are unnatural and potentially stressful situations, and horseback safaris may have adverse impacts on both the horses and the wildlife they have come to observe. This study aims to provide a preliminary insight into the behavioural responses of horses and herbivorous plains ga...
Henshall C, Randle H, Francis N, Freire R.Domestic horses are widely used for physically demanding activities but the effect of exercise on their learning abilities has not been explored. Horses are also frequently exposed to stressors that may affect their learning. Stress and exercise result in the release of glucocorticoids, noradrenaline and other neurotransmitters that can influence learning. It is not currently possible to directly measure concentrations of neurotransmitters in the brains of behaving horses, however the inference of neurobiological processes from peripheral markers have been widely used in studies of human cogni...
Maśko M, Lewczuk D, Szarska E, Domino M.A horse learning about the entrance to narrow, cage-shaped places may be challenging both for the horses as well as for the owners. For some behaviors, such as loading into a trailer or climbing onto a treadmill, the final behavioral goal can be achieved by working towards it in stages. This study compared the successive approximation of horses to their first work on a treadmill with horses hardly ever loaded (HE L) and regularly loaded (R L) into a trailer. Fourteen horses were divided into two groups (HE L n = 7 and R L n = 7) based on their experiences of entering into a trailer. Al...
Dai F, Costa ED, Giordano A, Heinzl EUL, Giongo P, Pagnozzi G, Cannas S, Minozzi G, Minero M.Horses preparation for competition may cause psychological and physical stress. Physical vascular therapy BEMER® is reported to increase vasomotion and microcirculation, supporting body healing. This study aimed at assessing whether BEMER® physical vascular therapy in horses influences recovery rate of hematological and biochemical blood parameters within 1 h after moderate exercise and reduces stress measured by physiological and behavioral indicators. This prospective, randomized, double blinded, placebo-controlled crossover study included twelve warmblood horses (3 mares, 8 geldings, 1 s...
Clothier J, Small A, Hinch G, Brown WY.The persistent endocrinological effects of perinatal stress due to gestational immaturity in horses are unknown, although effects have been reported in other livestock species. This pilot study tested the hypothesis that persistent adrenocortical dysregulation is present in horses that were gestationally immature at birth by assessing the salivary cortisol response to exogenous ACTH. Case horses (n = 10) were recruited with histories of gestation length < 315 d or dysmaturity observable through neonatal signs. Positive controls (n = 7) and negative controls (n = 5) were recruited wher...
Garcia EIC, Elghandour MMMY, Khusro A, Alcala-Canto Y, Tirado-González DN, Barbabosa-Pliego A, Salem AZM.Oxidative stress is the excess generation of free radicals and/or a decrease in the response of the antioxidant system. It is known to cause damage to the equine health by unbalancing the stable molecules. The dietary supplementation of vitamins E, C, and β-carotene cause beneficial effect on horses' health. These supplements could transform free radicals into the stable radicals, thereby showing importance in the prevention of diseases associated with oxidative stress. Adding vitamins E, C, and β-carotene to the horses' diets in stressful conditions could decrease the production of free rad...
Norton NM, Santschi E, Fischer KJ.The etiology of subchondral bone cysts (SBCs) is not fully understood. Mechanical trauma and fluid pressure are two mechanisms believed to cause their formation and growth. The equine stifle joint provides a natural animal model for studying SBCs. Computed tomography images of an extended yearling cadaveric stifle joint were segmented using ScanIP to isolate bones and relevant soft tissues. Three model geometries were created to simulate cyst sizes of approximately 0.03 cm (C1), 0.5 cm (C2), and 1 cm (C3). A uniform pressure resulting in 3000 N force was applied at the proximal end of the fem...
Calixto LC, Martinez JR.Cortisol is a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands that is stimulated by physiological and pathological factors and has been studied widely in equids, but not in mules. The objectives of this study were to obtain a reference value for serum cortisol in mules destined for agricultural activities and to identify age- and gender-related differences in the value. The concentration was obtained in blood samples using a commercial sandwich ELISA specific for cortisol. The concentration was 96.3 ± 40.6 ng/ml and similar between age groups and genders.
Tavanaeimanesh H, Dashli-Boroon OJ, Corley K.Understanding the physiological and biochemical changes in racehorses can be invaluable. Accurate information in this area could result in better understanding of needs of sport horses. The aim of this study was to prove the hypothesis that biochemical changes could influence the outcome of competitions. In this study, β-endorphin was evaluated as an indicator of analgesia, lactate as an indicator of fatigue and cortisol as an indicator of stress in the first two horses and the last ones that cross the finish line. This study was performed on 44 horses participating in the 1000-meter national...
Logan AA, Nielsen BD, Robison CI, Hallock DB, Manfredi JM, Hiney KM, Buskirk DD, Popovich JM.Circular exercise can be used at varying gaits and diameters to exercise horses, with repeated use anecdotally relating to increased lameness. This work sought to characterize mean area, mean vertical force, and mean pressure of the front hooves while exercising in a straight line at the walk and trot, and small (10-m diameter) and large circles (15-m diameter) at the walk, trot, and canter. Nine mature horses wore TekscanTM Hoof Sensors on their forelimbs adhered with a glue-on shoe. Statistical analysis was performed in SAS 9.4 with fixed effects of leg, gait, and exercise type (PROC GLIMMIX...
Lelláková M, Pavľak A, Lešková L, Florián M, Skurková L, Mesarčová L, Kottferová L, Takáčová D, Kottferová J.To assess stress in horses, a method of monitoring eye blinks (full and half) and eyelid twitches while collecting saliva and blood samples before and after annual intensive police training was carried out. This noninvasive monitoring method was used to determine whether blood collection, which is considered invasive, is more stressful for horses than saliva collection. We discovered no significant difference in stress related manifestations between saliva sampling and blood collection in our study. In both cases, sampling (blood and saliva) reduced the number of full and half eye blinks. Base...
Arfuso F, Giudice E, Panzera M, Rizzo M, Fazio F, Piccione G, Giannetto C.The monitoring of endocrine and immunologic markers during exercise is of paramount importance to assess and/or maintain the physical well-being of athletes as well as to optimize the athletic performance. This study aimed to investigate the linkage between acute stress response and immune status in Thoroughbred horses competing in an official 1300-m race. From 10 horses blood was collected 1 week before the day of the race (1W-BEFORE), before (REST) and immediately after the race to assess the cortisol, Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), total proteins, white blood cells (WBC), red b...
Ayala MD, Carrillo A, Iniesta P, Ferrer P.Different welfare indicators were studied in three patients with psychomotor alterations and in two horses throughout 9-10 equine assisted therapy sessions in each patient. In horses, heart and respiratory rates, blood pressure, temperature and behavioral signs were studied. In patients, heart rate, oxygen saturation, temperature, sleep quality, psychomotor and emotional parameters were analyzed. Data collection was recorded in the anticipatory phase (15 min before the start of the session), two interaction phases (after 30 min of horse-patient interaction on the ground and on horseback, respe...
Rørvang MV, Ničová K, Sassner H, Nawroth C.Many frameworks have assessed the ultimate and ontogenetic underpinnings in the development of object permanence, but less is known about whether individual characteristics, such as sex or training level, as well as proximate factors, such as arousal or emotional state, affect performance in these tasks. The current study investigated horses' performance in visible and invisible displacement tasks and assessed whether specific ontogenetic, behavioral, and physiological factors were associated with performance. The study included 39 Icelandic horses aged 2-25 years, of varying training levels. ...
Hernández-Avalos I, Mota-Rojas D, Mendoza-Flores JE, Casas-Alvarado A, Flores-Padilla K, Miranda-Cortes AE, Torres-Bernal F, Gómez-Prado J....Pain and anxiety are two of the most important concerns in clinical veterinary medicine because they arise as consequences of multiple factors that can severely affect animal welfare. The aim of the present review was to provide a description and interpretation of the physiological and behavioral alterations associated with pain and anxiety in equines. To this end, we conducted an extensive review of diverse sources on the topic. The article begins by describing the neurophysiological pathway of pain, followed by a discussion of the importance of the limbic system in responses to pain and anxi...
Topczewska J, Krupa W, Sokołowicz Z, Lechowska J.The aim of the study was to determine whether experience related to horse age and number of starts in championships influences stress level, measured by salivary cortisol concentration. The study involved 18 clinically healthy Hucul mares who participated in the Polish Championships for Hucul Horses. Evaluation of performance value was carried out in accordance with the guidelines specified in the breeding and genetic resources conservation program for this breed. The championship lasted two days, consisting of conformation evaluation, endurance, and Hucul path. Saliva was collected at baselin...
Erwin SJ, Blikslager AT, Ziegler AL.Colic is a leading cause of death in horses, with the most fatal form being strangulating obstruction which directly damages the intestinal barrier. Following surgical intervention, it is imperative that the intestinal barrier rapidly repairs to prevent translocation of gut bacteria and their products and ensure survival of the patient. Age-related disparities in survival have been noted in many species, including horses, humans, and pigs, with younger patients suffering poorer clinical outcomes. Maintenance and repair of the intestinal barrier is regulated by a complex mucosal microenvironmen...
Amado-Fuentes M, Gozalo M, Garcia-Gomez A, Barrios-Fernandez S.People with disabilities due to genetic origin often present high levels of stress: non-pharmacological interventions such as Equine-Assisted Interventions (EAI) may be a useful strategy. The objective of this pilot study was to evaluate stress levels in two participants with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome diagnosis, immediately after carrying out the EAI. A single case experimental design methodology was chosen due to the small sample size. Two participants with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome, a rare disease, with different comorbidities were included. The present study considered the EAI as the indepe...
Soroko M, Howell K, Dudek K, Waliczek A, Micek P, Flaga J.The aim of the study was to determine the utility of maximum eye temperature measured by infrared thermography (IRT) as a stress indicator compared with plasma cortisol concentration in Thoroughbred and Arabian racehorses. The study included thirty racehorses undergoing standard training for racing. Measurements of maximum eye temperature and blood collection for plasma cortisol concentration were carried out before training (BT), and within 5 (5AT) and 120 minutes (120AT) after the end of the each training session in three repetitions, with a monthly interval. Both parameters were elevated at...
Wiśniewska A, Janczarek I, Wilk I, Tkaczyk E, Mierzicka M, Stanley CR, Górecka-Bruzda A.Ridden horses have been reported to be fearful of cows. We tested whether cows could provoke behavioural and cardiac fear responses in horses, and whether these responses differ in magnitude to those shown to other potential dangers. Twenty horses were exposed to cow, a mobile object or no object. The time spent at different distances from the stimulus was measured. In a separate test, heart rate (HR), root mean square of successive differences between heartbeats (RMSSD) and the horses' perceived fear were assessed at various distances from the stimuli. The horses avoided the area nearest to a...
VOR DER DOMESTIKATION HING DAS ÜBERLEBEN DER EQUIDEN VON DER FäHIGKEIT AB, SICH IHRER UMGEBUNG UND MIT IHR VERBUNDENEN GEFAHREN ANZUPASSEN. DIES BETRAF V. A. RAUBTIERE, AUF DIE DIE PFERDE SCHNELL REAGIEREN MUSSTEN. MODERNE PFERDE UNTERSCHEIDEN SICH VON IHREN VORFAHREN U. A. IN IHRER REAKTION AUF STRESSOREN. SIE WURDEN üBER JAHRHUNDERTE HINWEG SO GEZüCHTET, DASS EIN FüR MENSCHEN SICHERER UMGANG MIT IHNEN MöGLICH IST. DIES REDUZIERTE AUCH IHRE REAKTIONEN AUF ANGSTERZEUGENDE FAKTOREN. DIE STUDIE UNTERSUCHTE, OB PFERDE NOCH IMMER DIE FäHIGKEIT BESITZEN, RECHTZEITIG AUF GEFAHREN DURCH RAUBTI...
Vincent A, Peth-Pierce RM, Morrissey MA, Acri MC, Guo F, Seibel L, Hoagwood KE.(1) Background: Accounting for the well-being of equine partners is a responsibility of those engaged in Equine-Assisted Services (EAS). Researchers took heed of this call to action by developing an innovative way to collect data to assess the physiological indicators of stress in equine participants. The collection of saliva is considered to be a minimally invasive method of data collection and is typically performed using a cotton swab; however, in equines, the introduction of a foreign object may induce stress; (2) Methods: Researchers used a modified bit to collect pooled saliva in an effo...
de Mira MC, Lamy E, Santos R, Williams J, Pinto MV, Martins PS, Rodrigues P, Marlin D.The purpose of this study was to investigate the usefulness of salivary cortisol (SC) and eye temperature measured by infrared thermography (IRTET) as biomarkers to manage competitions more effectively and monitor horse welfare in endurance competitions. Based on previous studies, it was hypothesised that pre-exercise baseline SC and IRTET would be higher in younger or less experienced horses, and that post-exercise variation from baseline would be higher in the top finishers. Results: Salivary cortisol measured in 61 competing at qualifier 40 km and 80 km rides showed an abrupt variation ...
Easton-Jones C.Equid gammaherpesviruses are ubiquitous and widespread in the equine population. Despite their frequent detection, their contribution to immune system modulation and the pathogenesis of several diseases remains unclear. Genetic variability and the combination of equid gammaherpesvirus strains a horse is infected with might be clinically significant. Initial gammaherpesvirus infection occurs in foals peripartum with latency then established in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. A novel EHV-5 study suggests that following inhalation equid gammaherpesviruses might obtain direct access to T and B...
Kowalik S, Janczarek I, Kędzierski W, Stachurska A, Wilk I.The objective of this study was to assess the effect of relaxing massage on the heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) in young racehorses during their first racing season. In the study, 72 Purebred Arabian racehorses were included. The study was implemented during the full race season. The horses from control and experimental groups were included in regular race training 6 days a week. The horses from the experimental group were additionally subject to the relaxing massage 3 days a week during the whole study. HR and HRV were assumed as indicators of the emotional state of the horse...
Bröjer J, Lindåse S, Hedenskog J, Alvarsson K, Nostell K.The increasing number of horses diagnosed with insulin resistance (IR) and the suggested link between IR and laminitis has highlighted the need to accurately diagnose IR in clinical practice. Objective: The aim of the study was to evaluate the repeatability of the combined glucose-insulin tolerance test (CGIT) as well as to determine the effect of 2 different breeds and the effect of a stressor on the test results. Methods: Clinically normal horses, 9 Standardbred horses and 9 Icelandic horses. Methods: Prospective clinical nonrandomized trial. The CGIT was performed on all horses on 2 occasio...
Swanberg JE, Clouser JM, Westneat S.Agriculture is hazardous and increasingly dependent on Latino workers, a vulnerable population. However, little research has studied how work organization influences Latino farmworker health. Methods: Using a work organization framework, this cross-sectional study describes and compares the work organization and occupational health characteristics of a sample of Latino crop (n = 49) and horse production (n = 54) workers in Kentucky. Results: Crop workers experienced more physical demands, work-related and environmental stressors, and musculoskeletal and ill-health symptoms. Significantly more ...
Muscat KE, Padalino B, Hartley CA, Ficorilli N, Celi P, Knight P, Raidal S, Gilkerson JR, Muscatello G.The risk of respiratory disease in the transported horse can increase as a consequence of immunosuppression and stress associated primarily with opportunistic bacterial proliferation and viral reactivation. This study examines the ecology of equid herpesviruses (EHV) in these horses, exploring reactivation and changes in infection and shedding associated with transport, and any potential contributions to transport-related respiratory disease. Twelve horses were subjected to an 8-h road-transport event. Antibodies to EHV-1 and EHV-4 were detected by ELISA in serum collected prior to, immediatel...
Krueger K, Esch L, Farmer K, Marr I.Every animal species has particular environmental requirements that are essential for its welfare, and when these so-called "basic needs" are not fulfilled, the animals suffer. The basic needs of horses have been claimed to be social contact, social companionship, free movement and access to roughage. To assess whether horses suffer when one or more of the four proposed basic needs are restricted, we examined several studies ( = 38) that reported behavioural and physiological reactions to these restrictions. We assigned the studies according to the four types of responses investigated: (a) Str...
Stewart AJ, Hackett E, Bertin FR, Towns TJ.Plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and serum cortisol concentrations increase with illness-associated stress. Dynamics of plasma ACTH and serum cortisol concentrations in adult horses with systemic illness are undocumented. Objective: To determine whether ACTH and cortisol concentrations and the ACTH/cortisol ratio vary with survival, the presence of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), or ischemic gastrointestinal lesions at admission, or throughout hospitalization. Methods: One hundred fifty-one adult horses. Methods: Prospective study measuring serum cortisol and plasma AC...
Raidal SL, Bailey GD, Love DN.To evaluate the effect of transportation on lower respiratory tract contamination and peripheral blood neutrophil function in horses and to compare results from transported horses with those obtained in earlier experiments from horses confined with heads elevated. Methods: A prospective study. Methods: Six horses were transported by road for 12 h. Clinical and haematological examination, transtracheal aspiration and cell function studies were conducted before and after transportation. Results obtained after transportation were compared to pre-transportation values. Results: After transportatio...
Malinowski K, Yee C, Tevlin JM, Birks EK, Durando MM, Pournajafi-Nazarloo H, Cavaiola AA, McKeever KH.With the increase in the number of horses being used in Equine-Assisted Activities and Therapies (EAAT) programs and with the increasing concern for animal welfare, it is important to understand the impact of such interventions on the stress level and quality of life for the horses involved. The purpose of the present pilot study was to test the hypothesis that participation in EAAT would acutely alter physiological markers of stress and well-being, including plasma cortisol, plasma oxytocin, and heart rate variability (HRV), in horses and that symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) ...
Stull CL, Spier SJ, Aldridge BM, Blanchard M, Stott JL.Little information exists on the immunological effects of transport or the use of supplements to minimise transport stress. Objective: To establish baseline ranges and evaluate immunophenotypic and functional changes associated with transport and a nutritional 'adaptogen' supplement. Methods: Horses received either supplement (n = 10) or placebos (n = 9) during the 30 day study. After 28 days in stalls, 12 horses (6 supplement; 6 placebo) were transported for 24 h, then unloaded and recovered. Venous blood samples were collected on Days 1, 14 and 28 to establish baselines, and on Days 28, 29 a...
Ramzan PH, Powell SE.Sagittal fracture of the proximal phalanx (P1) is an important musculoskeletal injury of the performance horse. Although widely considered to be monotonic in nature, there is emerging evidence that some P1 fractures may have stress-injury aetiology. Three cases are described in which imaging features found were suggestive of prodromal bone injury. All cases returned to full performance use after a period of rest. The authors conclude that it is possible that some P1 fractures in the Thoroughbred racehorse may develop through stress/fatigue injury pathways. It is proposed that intervention prio...
Stull CL, Morrow J, Aldridge BA, Stott JL, McGlone JJ.Thirty-eight mature horses were assigned to one of two equal groups to evaluate two treatments consisting of either 24 hours of continuous road transport (24T) or two 12-hour periods of transport separated by off-loading, resting and feeding the horses for 12 hours (12/12T). A subset of six horses from each group served as controls for the other group. The horses were loaded into a commercial straight-deck trailer and travelled loose in one of two standard-sized compartments. After the journeys the horses were put back into their paddocks for a 24-hour recovery period. Venous blood samples wer...
Rogers CW, Firth EC, McIlwraith CW, Barneveld A, Goodship AE, Kawcak CE, Smith RK, van Weeren PR.No data exist on the intensity of exercise required or on possible harmful effects of increasing exercise in foals over the natural level when free at pasture. Objective: To investigate whether an increase in workload over free pasture exercise in the period from directly after birth to the start of training is tolerated by Thoroughbred (TB) foals without increasing injury rate or producing other undesired side effects. Methods: Thirty-three TB foals were allocated to one of 2 exercise groups directly after birth. One group (PASTEX) was raised on pasture and the other (CONDEX) kept under ident...
Contreras-Aguilar MD, Henry S, Coste C, Tecles F, Escribano D, Cerón JJ, Hausberger M.Acute stress induces an array of behavioural reactions in horses that vary between individuals. Attempts to relate behavioural patterns and physiological responses have not always given clear-cut results. Here, we measured the changes in a panel of salivary components: salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), lipase, total esterase (TEA), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), adenosine deaminase (ADA), and cortisol, and their potential link with horses' behaviours after acute stress. Saliva samples were collected in nine riding horses subjected to a test consisting of opening an umbrella. Saliva sampling was obt...
Spriet M, Espinosa-Mur P, Cissell DD, Phillips KL, Arino-Estrada G, Beylin D, Stepanov P, Katzman SA, Galuppo LD, Garcia-Nolen T, Murphy B, Stover SM.Early and accurate detection of stress remodelling in racehorses is of utmost importance to prevent catastrophic injuries. Current imaging techniques have limitations in assessing early changes predisposing to catastrophic breakdowns. Positron emission tomography (PET) using F-sodium fluoride ( F-NaF) is a sensitive method for the detection of early bone turnover and may improve early recognition of subtle injuries. Objective: To validate the clinical use of F-NaF PET in Thoroughbred racehorses, to assess the value of PET in the detection of bone lesions and to compare PET results with findi...
Wilson AM, McGuigan MP, Fouracre L, MacMahon L.Mechanical overload due to poor conformation or shoeing has been suggested to contribute to the development of navicular disease. While studies have determined the compressive force exerted on the navicular bone in normal horses, this has not been reported for horses with navicular disease. Also, the force has not been converted to stress by correction for contact area. In this study we developed a technique for the determination of the contact area between the deep digital flexor tendon and the navicular bone in vivo, and used a forceplate system to determine the force and stress on the bone ...
Sylvia L, West E, Blackburn AM, Gupta C, Bui E, Mahoney T, Duncan G, Wright EC, Lejeune S, Spencer TJ.Equine-assisted activities and therapies (EAATs) have been a growing adjunctive integrative health modality, as they allow participants to practice mindfulness, emotional regulation, and self-mastery or self-esteem building skills. Preliminary evidence suggests that these programs may be helpful in reducing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depressive symptoms. The current study examines the acceptability of integrating an EAAT program as part of a two-week, intensive clinical program for veterans with PTSD and/or traumatic brain injury (TBI). Methods: A family member or suppo...
Vatistas NJ, Sifferman RL, Holste J, Cox JL, Pinalto G, Schultz KT.Gastric ulceration is a prevalent condition of racehorses. A number of models of gastric ulceration have been described, but none mimic the conditions of a horse in training. The objectives of this study were to determine whether gastric ulcers could be induced and maintained in a group of horses in simulated race training. In addition, serum cortisol was measured on a weekly basis to investigate the possibility that stress may be important in the pathogenesis of gastric ulceration. Thirty horses used in the trial were fed Bermuda grass hay and 6 kg of a concentrate diet, and exercised 6 days/...
Hoagwood K, Vincent A, Acri M, Morrissey M, Seibel L, Guo F, Flores C, Seag D, Peth Pierce R, Horwitz S.Reining in Anxiety (RiA) is a therapeutic program for youth with mild to moderate anxiety delivered in a therapeutic riding setting by Certified Therapeutic Riding Instructors. RiA was developed after a review of the evidence base for youth anxiety, is manualized, and includes five core CBT components: in vivo exposure, cognitive restructuring, youth psychoeducation, relaxation, and caregiver psychoeducation about anxiety. This study extended findings from a prior RCT that examined (1) the feasibility of collecting saliva samples from horses and children to measure stress (cortisol) and relaxa...
Hemmann K, Raekallio M, Kanerva K, Hänninen L, Pastell M, Palviainen M, Vainio O.Crib-biting is classified as an oral stereotypy, which may be initiated by stress susceptibility, management factors, genetic factors and gastrointestinal irritation. Ghrelin has been identified in the gastric mucosa and is involved in the control of food intake and reward, but its relationship to crib-biting is not yet known. The aim of this study was to examine the concentration and circadian variation of plasma ghrelin, cortisol, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and β-endorphin in crib-biting horses and non-crib-biting controls. Plasma samples were collected every second hour for 24h in ...
Miller AB, Harris PA, Barker VD, Adams AA.Long-distance transport is associated with stress-related changes in equine immune function, and shipping-associated illnesses are often reported. Horses are frequently transported short distances, yet the effects of short-term transport on immune function remain largely unknown. Twelve horses, aged 15-30 yr, were assigned to either the control (n = 6) or treatment (n = 6) groups; treatment horses received a daily antioxidant supplement 3 weeks before and after transport. All horses were transported for approximately 1.5-2 hr on Day 0. Blood was collected via jugular venipuncture at 15-min pre...
Pohlin F, Brabender K, Fluch G, Stalder G, Petit T, Walzer C. Ecosystems with seasonal fluctuations in climate and food availability present physiological challenges to resident mammals and may cause "stress." The two predominant physiological responses to stressors are (1) the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and (2) the modulation of the autonomic nervous system. To date, the primary indicator for "stress" in wildlife- and zoo animal research are glucocorticoid levels. By measuring the autonomic regulation of cardiac activity, particularly the vagal tone, heart rate variability (HRV) is presently emerging as a suitable indicator o...
Kędzierski W, Cywińska A, Strzelec K, Kowalik S.Physical activity and stress both cause an increase in cortisol release ratio. The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of saliva samples for the determination of cortisol concentrations indicating the work-load level in horses during race training. Twelve Purebred Arabian horses aged 3-5 years were studied during the routine training session. After the warm-up, the horses galloped on the 800 m sand track at a speed of 12.8 m/s. Three saliva samples, and three blood samples were collected from each horse. Both types of samples were taken at rest, immediately after return from the trac...
Kang OD, Lee WS.This study aimed to estimate the change of stress level in horses based on cortisol concentration levels in their saliva. A total of 61 horses were divided into the following three groups: i) tourist riding experience (TR, n = 23); ii) resting group (RR, n = 14); and iii) horse-riding education (ER, n = 24). The saliva samples of TR and ER groups were taken using plain cotton Salivettes four times a day: at 07:00 (basal), 11:00 (Exercise 1, after 1-hour exercise in the morning), 14:00 (Exercise 2, after 1-hour exercise in the afternoon), and 16:00 (Exercise 3, after 1-hour exercise in the afte...
Arfuso F, Giannetto C, Giudice E, Fazio F, Panzera M, Piccione G.The current study aimed to investigate whether peripheral modulators of serotoninergic function and neurohumoral factors' changes in athletic horses during an official jumping competition, and to evaluate their relationship with the physical performance of competing horses. From 7 Italian Saddle mares (6-9 years; mean body weight 440 ± 15 kg), performing the same standardized warm-up and jumping course during an official class, heart rate (HR) was monitored throughout the competition. Rectal temperature (RT) measurement, blood lactate and glucose concentration, serum tryptophan, leucine, vali...
Seeber PA, Quintard B, Sicks F, Dehnhard M, Greenwood AD, Franz M.Equine Herpesviruses (EHV) are common and often latent pathogens of equids which can cause fatalities when transmitted to non-equids. Stress and elevated glucocorticoids have been associated with EHV reactivation in domestic horses, but little is known about the correlation between stress and viral reactivation in wild equids. We investigated the effect of an environmental stressor (social group restructuring following a translocation event) on EHV reactivation in captive Grévy's zebras (). A mare was translocated by road transport from Zoo Mulhouse, France, to join a resident group of three ...
Jaskulak M, Rorat A, Grobelak A, Kacprzak M.The aim of the study was to evaluate sensitivity and potential applications of selected biomarkers in phytoremediation under complex heavy metal contamination in Sinapis alba L., Robinia pseudoacacia L. and Lupinus luteus L as a potential tools in effective phytoremediation management. The toxicity assessment was conducted using selected measurement endpoints, both classical and advanced, i.e., germination index, roots length, guaiacol peroxidase activity (GPX), chlorophyll and protein content, the amount of total phenolic compounds (TPC) and level of expression of one of the ribulose-bisphosp...
Schefer KD, Bitschnau C, Weishaupt MA, Schwarzwald CC.Stress echocardiography is used to diagnose myocardial dysfunction in horses, but current methods are not well standardized. The influence of heart rate (HR) on measurements is largely unknown. Objective: To investigate the use of 2-dimensional echocardiography (2DE), anatomical M-mode (AMM), tissue Doppler imaging (TDI), and 2D speckle tracking (2DST) at rest and after exercise for quantification of regional and global left-ventricular (LV) function. Methods: Five athletic Warmblood horses; 11.6+/-3.6 years; 529+/-48 kg. Methods: Prospective study. Three separate echocardiographic examination...
Visser EK, VanDierendonck M, Ellis AD, Rijksen C, Van Reenen CG.In 'sympathetic horsemanship' the importance of the natural behaviour of the horse and the use of body language in communication is emphasised. However, it is unclear what effect sympathetic horsemanship has on the welfare of horses. During a 5-week starting period the effect of a sympathetic (ST) versus a conventional (CT) training method was studied using 28 young Warmblood horses. Behavioural observations during the starting period as well as during a standardised final riding test were performed by trained observers. A Wilcoxon matched-pair test was used to detect differences within groups...
Asheim A, Lindblad G.Forty-five race-horses with arthritis of non-in-fectious type in 54 joints were treated with sodium hyaluronate intra-articularly. All joints had previously been treated without lasting success by conventional methods, such as firing, blistering or intraarticular injection of cortisone. In most cases only 1 injection of 2 ml (20 mg) sodium hyaluronate was needed. To avoid subjective evaluation, the effects of the treatment were based on the joint’s capacity of withstanding extreme stress, which means that the horse should be able to train and race again. The treatment was concentrated on the...
Starling MJ, Branson N, Cody D, McGreevy PD.Animal training relies heavily on an understanding of species-specific behaviour as it integrates with operant conditioning principles. Following on from recent studies showing that affective states and arousal levels may correlate with behavioural outcomes, we explore the contribution of both affective state and arousal in behavioural responses to operant conditioning. This paper provides a framework for assessing how affective state and arousal may influence the efficacy of operant training methods. It provides a series of three-dimensional conceptual graphs as exemplars to describing putati...
