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Topic:Young Horses
Young horses are generally defined as those under five years of age, transitioning from foals to adults. Research in this area examines the study of equine development, behavior, and health across different life stages. This includes the physiological and anatomical changes that occur as horses mature from foals into adults. Additionally, understanding behavioral aspects such as socialization, learning, and adaptation to training is key to this field. This page gathers peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the developmental processes, health considerations, and management practices relevant to young horses and their transition into adulthood.
Hepatic and pulmonary enzyme activities in horses. To determine hepatic and pulmonary phase-I and phase-II enzyme activities in horses. Methods: Pulmonary and hepatic tissues from 22 horses that were 4 months to 32 years old. Methods: Pulmonary and hepatic tissues from horses were used to prepare cytosolic (glutathione S-transferase and soluble epoxide hydrolase) and microsomal (cytochrome P450 monooxygenases) enzymes. Rates of microsomal metabolism of ethoxyresorufin, pentoxyresorufin, and naphthalene were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. Activities of glutathione S-transferase and soluble epoxide hydrolase were determine...
Immunity to equine influenza: relationship of vaccine-induced antibody in young Thoroughbred racehorses to protection against field infection with influenza A/equine-2 viruses (H3N8). Field outbreaks of influenza that occurred in vaccinated Thoroughbred racehorses in Newmarket in 1995 and 1996 were investigated by nucleoprotein ELISA and serology. Investigations showed that serum levels of vaccine-induced single radial haemolysis (SRH) antibody correlated closely with protective immunity against equine influenza and were consistent with observations made in previous experimental studies using nebulised aerosol challenge. In the second part of this study, antibody levels stimulated by vaccination were investigated to examine probable protection in high risk groups, such as y...
Cardiac responses to training in 2-year-old thoroughbreds: an echocardiographic study. Guided M-mode echocardiography was performed in seven 2-year-old Thoroughbreds before commencement of commercial flat-race training, and 18 weeks later, when all horses were either racing regularly (5 horses), or at racing fitness (2 horses). M-mode echocardiography was performed using a 2.5 MHz annular phased array ultrasound transducer and a Vingmed 800 Supervision echocardiograph. Images were obtained from the right hemithorax; a short axis view of the left ventricle (LV) at the level of the chordae tendinae was used to position the M-mode cursor. The following variables were measured: left...
Treadmill exercise-induced tendon hypertrophy: assessment of tendons with different mechanical functions. The equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) functions as an energy store during high-speed gaits reducing the energetic cost of locomotion. To enable the SDFT to function effectively, the appropriate mechanical properties are essential. We tested the hypothesis that the SDFT does not undergo gross hypertrophy in response to high-intensity exercise whereas tendons not involved in energy storage undergo adaptive hypertrophy. Two groups (n = 6) of Thoroughbred fillies were trained at high-intensity on a high-speed equine treadmill for 5 months (short-term study) or 18 months (long-term st...
An MRI study of the effect of treadmill training on bone morphology of the central and third tarsal bones of young thoroughbred horses. Training results in marked modelling of the subchondral bone of the carpus, but the effect of training on the subchondral bone of the distal tarsal joints is unknown. The aim of this study was to determine whether training influenced modelling of the third and central tarsal bones in Thoroughbred horses. Twelve untrained Thoroughbred horses were divided into 2 groups. Group 1 underwent a 19 week progressive training regimen on a high speed treadmill. Group 2 were walked for 40 min daily. Images of left tarsi were obtained by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with a 0.5 Tesla superconducting mag...
Effect of exercise on bone density in distal regions of the equine third metacarpal bone in 2-year-old thoroughbreds. The present study addressed the question of whether training induces changes in bone density in the younger racehorse in regions relevant to the genesis of the common sagittal condylar fracture pattern and, if so, the nature of such alteration. Third metacarpal bones (McIII) were obtained from 12 experimental Thoroughbred, unbroken fillies, age 18.1-21.0 months at entry to the study. Six (Group E) undertook 19 weeks of progressive high intensity exercise on a high-speed treadmill at 3% incline. Six (Group C) walked 40 min each day. Clinical bone density was studied by Computed Tomography (CT) ...
Should equine athletes commence training during skeletal development?: changes in tendon matrix associated with development, ageing, function and exercise. In human athletes, conditioning, training and competition are commenced before skeletal maturity. Yet in equine athletics, racing of young (age 2 years) horses remains contentious. Tendon injury persists as major causes of wastage in equine athletes. Minimising injury and associated welfare issues could involve a radical approach to the timing and implementation of conditioning and training. Tendons were examined from Thoroughbreds, Dutch Warmblood foals, working horses and also a group of wild horses to evaluate effects of age, function and exercise. Gross mechanical properties did not differ...
Osteoinductive response in the dorsal aspect of the carpus of young thoroughbreds in training occurs within months. Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured by dual x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in the carpus of 6 Thoroughbreds age 24 months that were exercised on the treadmill for 4.5 months, and of 6 matched control horses. A sagittal slab of known thickness was sawn from one or more of radius, radial carpal (Cr), third carpal (C3), and third metacarpal (Mc3) bones. After the 4.5 month treadmill exercise, there was a significantly greater volumetric BMD in the dorsal aspect of C3 (P = 0.006). Treadmill-exercised horses also had higher BMD in the dorsodistal aspect of the radius (P = 0.03), the dorsal half of ...
A comparison between the trot of pony and horse foals to characterize equine locomotion at young age. The trot at 3 m/s of 24 Shetland foals ('ponies') and 24 Dutch Warmblood foals ('horses') was recorded at age 4 months on a treadmill using a modified CODA-3 apparatus to characterise equine locomotion at young age. Locomotor variables of the ponies were qualitatively and, after scaling, quantitatively compared with those of horses. Ponies made shorter strides than horses, evidenced by a shorter stance and swing duration, although their relative stance durations were similar. Neither linear nor dynamic scaling procedures could completely compensate for differences in height at the withers comp...
Standardisation of muscular biopsy of gluteus medius in French trotters. Morphometric measurements were taken from 41 French trotters of various ages and both sexes. Biopsy location was determined for the dorsal compartment as being one-third of the distance from the tuber sacrale to the tuber coxae and for the ventral compartment as being one-third of the distance from the tuber coxae to the caudal Cd1-Cd2 intervertebral joint. Ten horses were biopsied at these 2 sites at a sampling depth equal to half the total depth of the compartment as measured by ultrasonography. The percentage of slow and fast myosin heavy chain fibres was measured by using an immunoenzymati...
Comparison of bone mineral content and biochemical markers of bone metabolism in stall- vs. pasture-reared horses. Sixteen Arabian yearlings were assigned randomly to 2 groups, confined to stall and pastured, to investigate the effects of confinement vs. pasture-rearing on bone mineral content and biochemical markers of bone metabolism over a 140 day period. Following an 84 day pretraining period, 6 horses from each group were selected randomly to complete a 56 day training period. Serum osteocalcin concentrations were determined from blood samples collected every 14 days. Urinary deoxypyridinoline concentrations and mineral content of the third metacarpus, as determined by lateral and medial radiographic ...
Radiographic measures of bone shape in young thoroughbreds during training for racing. The aim of this study was to determine if changes in the shape of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) during the first preparation for racing in young Thoroughbred racehorses could be measured radiographically. Lateral radiographs of each MC3 were taken when the horses commenced training, every 2 weeks for 10 weeks, and again at 6 months after the start of training. The width of the dorsal cortex (DC), palmar cortex (PC), and medulla (M) were measured at a position 2.5 cm distal to the nutrient foramen before the subject of each radiograph was identified. The following ratios were calculated: z = ...
Application of V200 values for evaluation of training effects in the young thoroughbred under field conditions. The purpose of this investigation was to study, under field conditions, the usefulness of an incremental exercise test to measure V200 (running velocity [V] at heart rate HR[ of 200 beats/min) for evaluation of training effects in the young Thoroughbred. Five to 112 two-year-old Thoroughbreds were used over 4 years to investigate the correlation between HR and V, the influence of the track and rider's weight to V200, reproducibility of V200 and the changes of V200 as training progresses. The high correlation coefficient between HR and V, and V200 were obtained in horses that exercised smoothly...
Dietary carbohydrates and fat influence radiographic bone mineral content of growing foals. Hydrolyzable carbohydrate intake in horse diets may become excessive when rapidly growing pastures are supplemented with grain-based concentrates. The substitution of fat and fiber for hydrolyzable carbohydrate in concentrates has been explored in exercising horses but not in young, growing horses. Our objective was to compare bone development in foals that were fed pasture and concentrates rich in sugar and starch (corn, molasses) or fat and fiber (corn oil, beet pulp, soybean hulls, oat straw). Forty foals were examined, 20 each in 1994 and 1995. In each year, 10 mares and their foals were f...
Age-related morphometry of equine incisors. In the present study the age-related morphological characteristics of 948 equine incisors were investigated. After extraction, total incisival length and root length were measured at the vestibular side of the teeth. Equine incisors reach their maximal length 2-3 years after eruption. Notwithstanding severe occlusal wear, this maximal length is maintained during most of the horses' life due to prolonged root formation. Root formation, at the rate of 2.5 mm per year, starts at the age of 5-6 years and continues until the age of 17. As the root of the incisor develops, its apical foramen narrows...
Post-mortem findings of gastric ulcers in Swedish horses up to one year of age: a retrospective study 1924-1996. Necropsy records from 702 horses, less than one year old, that were subjected to necropsy between 1924 and 1996 were used to estimate the prevalence of gastric ulceration in younger horses and to evaluate some potential risk factors that may contribute to the development of gastric ulceration. Information concerning breed, gender, age, season of death, clinical signs of colic, medical treatment, parasitism and documentation of diseases in different organs were recorded, as well as size, number and anatomical distribution of ulcers. Gastric ulcers were found in 96 of 702 young horses (14%) and ...
Impact of injuries and disease on a cohort of two- and three-year-old thoroughbreds in training. A prospective study of injuries and disease in a cohort of Australian thoroughbreds in training was conducted with the participation of 24 trainers. From the horses catalogued at a major yearling sale in 1995, 169 were enrolled in the study and followed through their two- and three-year-old racing seasons. The principal aim was to quantify the time lost in training as a result of the various categories of injuries and disease, recorded as either days of modified training, or weeks rested at pasture. Shin soreness was the most common condition in two-year-olds (affecting 42 per cent of the hors...
Influence of chromium tripicolinate on growth and glucose metabolism in yearling horses. Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse yearlings (n = 24; 335+/-7 d of age) were used in a 112-d feeding trial to determine whether chromium (Cr) supplementation would alter growth, development, and energy metabolism of growing horses on high-concentrate diets. The horses were assigned at random within breed and gender subgroups to one of four treatment groups: A) basal concentrate; B) basal plus 175 microg of Cr/kg concentrate; C) basal plus 350 microg of Cr/kg concentrate; and D) basal plus 700 microg of Cr/kg concentrate. Chromium was provided via Cr tripicolinate (Prince Agri Products, Quincy, IL)...
Exercise-induced haemorrhagic lesions in the dorsocaudal extremities of the caudal lobes of the lungs of young thoroughbred horses. The dorsocaudal extremities of the caudal lobes of the lungs of racehorses are vulnerable to exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH). The morphology of the lungs at these sites was studied in 13 Thoroughbred horses aged 18 to 22 months. These animals, which had been performing low-intensity exercise on a track at maximum running speeds of approximately 5-8.5 metres/second (m/s), were withdrawn from the racehorse training programme for reasons of unsuitability. Lung lesions observed in the dorsocaudal lung extremities in 10 of the 13 horses were not found in the craniodorsal or craniovent...
Intramuscular desmoid tumor (musculoaponeurotic fibromatosis) in two horses. Intramuscular desmoid tumors (musculoaponeurotic fibromatosis) were discovered in two young adult horses. The tumor in one horse was in the lateral cervical musculature, and that in the second horse occurred in the pectoral musculature. Histopathologic features were similar in both horses and included proliferation of fibroblasts and cells expressing muscle actin (myofibroblasts), with extensive dissecting fibrosis within muscle. These features are similar to those of desmoid tumors in humans, particularly those also known as musculoaponeurotic fibromatosis. Dissection of these lesions reveale...
Comparison of intra-articular injection of 2 ml of 0.9% NaCl solution with rest alone for treatment of horses with traumatic arthritis. To compare effects of intra-articular injection of 2 ml of 0.9% NaCl solution with rest alone for treatment of horses with traumatic arthritis. Methods: 38 Standardbred horses with moderate to severe lameness that resulted from traumatic arthritis. Methods: Horses were stratified on the basis of number of affected joints. In each stratum, horses were allocated randomly to treatment groups (intraarticular injection of 2 ml of 0.9% NaCl solution vs rest only). Treatment was for a period of 3 weeks. Horses were inspected weekly with a final examination 2 to 4 weeks after completion of treatment. ...
Pathogenicity of cyathostome infection. Cyathostomes are now the principle parasitic pathogen of the horse: a remarkable transformation during the last 25 years from virtual obscurity to focus of attention in equine parasitology. This rise to prominence coincides with the marked decrease in prevalence of large strongyle infections as a result of widespread use of modern anthelmintic compounds. On the basis that strongyle-associated diseases continue to commonly occur in the absence of these large strongyle species, clinical attention has turned to the pathogenicity of cyathostomes. Although many horses harbour burdens of tens of tho...
Influence of age and sex in serum osteocalcin levels in thoroughbred horses. In this study, we assessed the potential value of free serum osteocalcin or bone gla protein (BGP), the most abundant non collagenous matrix protein found in bone and dentin, to reflect changes of bone turnover in thoroughbred horses. Levels of osteocalcin were analyzed in serum samples of 54 clinically normal animals divided into three groups (A, B, C) according to age: 8, 16-18 and 24-36 months, in order to determine the standard for young horses of different age and sex. Serum BGP was measured by an in-house developed double antibody radioimmunoassay using bovine antigen. The mean BGP level...
Factors affecting the harem formation process by young Misaki feral stallions. For the past 12 years, a study was conducted in the Misaki area (southern Kyushu Island, Japan) to investigate young males form new harems, how they acquire the mares and the factors affecting the process of new harem formation. Young males formed new harems between the ages of 3.8 and 7.6 yr, and 93% of these new harem groups were formed at the beginning of the breeding season. The most common way (87%) for young males to form a new harem was by acquiring wandering mares which had separated from their groups, whereas 13% stole unstable mares from established bands. The fact that all young mal...
Efficacy of a commercial vaccine for preventing disease caused by influenza virus infection in horses. To evaluate efficacy of a commercial vaccine for prevention of infectious upper respiratory tract disease (IURD) caused by equine influenza virus. Methods: Double-masked, randomized, controlled field trial. Methods: 462 horses stabled at a Thoroughbred racetrack. Methods: Vaccine or saline solution placebo was administered 4 times in the population at 6-week intervals. The vaccine contained 3 strains of inactivated influenza virus, and inactivated equine herpesvirus type 4. Horses received 1 or 2 doses of vaccine or placebo prior to onset of a natural influenza epidemic, and were examined 5 d/...
Effect of exercise on the immune response of young and old horses. To compare exercise-induced immune modulation in young and older horses. Methods: 6 young and 6 aged horses that were vaccinated against equine influenza virus. Methods: Venous blood samples were collected for immunologic assessment before and immediately after exercise at targeted heart rates and after exercise for determination of plasma lactate and cortisol concentrations. Mononuclear cells were assayed for lymphoproliferative responses and incubated with interleukin-2 (IL-2) to induce lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells. Antibodies to equine influenza virus were measured. Results: Olde...
Spinal ligament pathology. Young elite athletes, particularly horses used for jumping, are at a relatively high risk for injury to the ligaments associated with the axial skeleton. Extreme back flexion appears to be a contributing factor to ligament damage. Back pain due to injury of the ligaments of the axial skeleton has often been considered to be secondary to lower limb injury, to the extent that a separate definitive diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis were unnecessary. Diagnostic imaging, ultrasound in particular, has demonstrated ligamentous damage that can be the limiting factor in return to previous athletic us...
A histological and immunohistochemical study of the humoral immune system of the lungs in young Thoroughbred horses. Lungs were obtained from 16 Thoroughbred horses, aged 1 day to 2 years, which had died or been humanely killed for reasons unrelated to disease of the lower respiratory tract. The lungs were then subjected to a histological and immunohistochemical examination of the humoral immune system. At birth there was no evidence of organized lymphoid tissue, and lymphocytes and plasma cells were virtually absent in all tissue compartments in the first week of life. However, by 12 weeks, foals exhibited well developed bronchus- and bronchiole-associated lymphoid tissue, but this had regressed progressive...
A longitudinal study of racing thoroughbreds: performance during the first years of racing. To develop a profile of the racing careers of Thoroughbred horses in south-eastern Queensland, and to examine factors that affect racing during the first years of racing. Methods: A longitudinal study using the racing records of a defined cohort of Thoroughbred horses that were born on or within 12 months following 1 August 1991. Data collection commenced in 1996 and will continue until all horses cease racing. In this paper two measures of performance were examined: race earnings during the first year of racing and cumulative proportion of horses still racing up to 2 years after their first s...
