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Topic:Anatomy
Anatomy in horses encompasses the study of the structural organization of the equine body, including the bones, muscles, organs, and systems that function together to sustain life and enable movement. Understanding equine anatomy is important for veterinarians, equine scientists, and horse owners, as it provides insights into how horses move, how they respond to external stimuli, and how various conditions can affect their health and performance. Key anatomical features in horses include the musculoskeletal system, which provides support and locomotion; the cardiovascular system, which circulates blood and nutrients; and the respiratory system, which facilitates gas exchange. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the detailed anatomy of horses, focusing on the structure and function of different body systems, their interrelationships, and their relevance to equine health, performance, and veterinary care.
Microstructural properties of the proximal sesamoid bones of Thoroughbred racehorses in training. Proximal sesamoid bone fractures are common catastrophic injuries in racehorses. Understanding the response of proximal sesamoid bones to race training can inform fracture prevention strategies. Objective: To describe proximal sesamoid bone microstructure of racehorses and to investigate the associations between microstructure and racing histories. Methods: Cross-sectional. Methods: Proximal sesamoid bones from 63 Thoroughbred racehorses were imaged using micro-computed tomography. Bone volume fraction (BVTV) and bone material density (BMD) of the whole bone and four regions (apical, midbody d...
Concurrent Validity of Equine Joint Range of Motion Measurement: A Novel Digital Goniometer versus Universal Goniometer. Goniometry is the measurement of joint angles with a conventional universal goniometer (UG) or a digital goniometer (DG). The UG is validated for use in dogs and cats. However, it demands both of the user's hands when measuring. To avoid this, a novel type of DG has been developed, simplifying measurement by offering single-hand usage. The objective of this study is to examine the concurrent validity of the DG. The study consists of measurement with the DG and UG for flexion of the carpus and fetlock on ten horses, and with the DG in flexion and neutral positioning of the fetlock on a sedated ...
An in situ and ultrasound study of Yonaguni ponies revealed the rare finding of the nuchal ligament lamellae from C2-C7. The Yonaguni pony is a rare breed of pony that has remained isolated on the westernmost island of Japan and may well retain normal morphological traits currently lost in most domestic horses (Equus caballus), such as the attachment of the nuchal ligament lamellae (NLL) from C2-C7. Recent research has found that NLL attachments are no longer present at C6 and C7 in most modern domesticated horses. This study investigated the attachments of the NLL in three Yonaguni ponies; 2 were examined in situ(deceased), and 1 was examined in vivo via ultrasound. The aim was to verify the attachments and com...
A Systematic Approach to Dissection of the Equine Brain-Evaluation of a Species-Adapted Protocol for Beginners and Experts. Introduction of new imaging modalities for the equine brain have refocused attention on the horse as a natural model for ethological, neuroanatomical, and neuroscientific investigations. As opposed to imaging studies, strategies for equine neurodissection still lack a structured approach, standardization and reproducibility. In contrast to other species, where adapted protocols for sampling have been published, no comparable guideline is currently available for equids. Hence, we developed a species-specific slice protocol for whole brain vs. hemispheric dissection and tested its applicability ...
An anatomical study of the dorsal and ventral nasal conchal bullae and middle nasal conchae in normal Shetland ponies: Computed tomographic anatomical and morphometric findings. Equine paranasal sinuses are susceptible to inflammation. Insufficient drainage through the nasal passages and meatus may lead to the accumulation of inspissated purulent discharge. Particularly in ponies, these anatomical structures are suspected to be relatively small. To date, there are no reports considering the morphology of nasal conchal bullae in small horse breeds such as Shetland ponies. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the size of the conchal bullae and the medial nasal conchae of Shetland ponies and their relation to the skull dimension using computed tomography. Reco...
Surgical Debulking and TransEndoscopic Noncontact Diode Laser Application for Treating a Sinonasal Myxoma in a Horse. Equine sinonasal myxomas (SNM) are very rare; only a few cases/small case series are reported in veterinary literature. The purpose of this report is to describe the diagnostic and surgical procedure adopted to approach the neoplastic mass in a case of equine SNM. A 5 year old, Murgese gelding was presented with mild serous nasal discharge, minimal facial swelling, decreased airflow from the right nostril, and dull frontal sinus percussion. Diagnostic imaging, including endoscopy, revealed a pale mass in the caudal portion of the right middle meatus, which developed inside the right conchofron...
Occipital condyle defects assessed by radiography or CT can be a normal finding in foals. Age of complete ossification of equine occipital condyles has not been published. Consequently, clinical significance of occipital condyle defects on radiographs or CT scans of young horses remains unknown. The goals of this single-center, retrospective, cross-sectional study were to characterize incidental occipital condyle defects and to define the age of complete ossification. The margin of occipital condyles was classified as regular or with defect(s). Analyses were made on 121 horses, including 106 radiographic and 19 CT studies showing the occipital condyles of horses less than 5 years o...
Inflammatory cytokines in horses with cervical articular process joint osteoarthritis on standing cone beam computed tomography. Standing cone beam computed tomography (CT) provides cross-sectional imaging of the caudal cervical articular process joints (CAPJs) in the sedated horse, though the clinical implications of osteoarthritis (OA) identified on CT in this location are unknown. Increases in concentrations of intra-synovial cytokines could lend support to the clinical significance of CAPJ OA identified on this imaging modality. Objective: Investigate the presence and concentration of intra-synovial inflammatory cytokines in CAPJs with and without standing cone beam CT evidence of OA using an equine specific multipl...
Development and Pathology of the Equine Mammary Gland. An understanding of the anatomy, histology, and development of the equine mammary gland underpins study of the pathology of diseases including galactorrhoea, agalactia, mastitis, and mammary tumour development. This review examines the prenatal development of the equine mammary gland and the striking degree to which the tissue undergoes postnatal development associated with the reproductive cycle. The gland is characterised by epithelial structures arranged in terminal duct lobular units, similar to those of the human breast, supported by distinct zones of intra- and interlobular collagenous s...
Histologic effects of MicroPulse™ transscleral cyclophotocoagulation in normal equine eyes. Determine the immediate post-operative effects of MicroPulse transscleral cyclophotocoagulation (MP-TSCPC) in healthy equine eyes. Methods: Ten adult horses. Methods: MP-TSCPC was performed on sedated horses in 12 eyes (4 groups) using the following parameters (power, duration, duty cycle): (1) 2000 mW, 180 seconds, 31.3%; (2) 3000 mW, 180 seconds, 31.3%; (3) 3000 mW, 270 seconds, 31.3%; and (4) 3000 mW, 270 seconds, 50%. Three additional eyes were left untreated (control). Eyes were monitored clinically until euthanasia (mean = 3 hours post-procedure). Histologic sections were asse...
Use of color-coded, three-dimensional-printed equine carpus models is preferred by students but does not result in statistically different academic performance. Radiology can be a challenging subject for students and finding new techniques that help improve their understanding could have positive effects in their clinical practice. The purpose of this prospective experimental study was to implement the use of color-coded, three-dimensional-printed, handheld equine carpus models into a radiographic anatomy course and evaluate the impact objectively and subjectively using quizzes and student response surveys. A first-year veterinary class was randomly divided into two similarly sized groups (groups A and B) for an equine normal radiographic anatomy labo...
Computed Tomographic and Histopathological Characteristics of 13 Equine and 10 Feline Oral and Sinonasal Squamous Cell Carcinomas. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the most common equine sinonasal and feline oral tumour. This study aimed to describe the computed tomographic and histopathological characteristics of equine and feline SCC. Thirteen horses and 10 cats that had been histopathologically diagnosed with oral or sinonasal SCC and had undergone computed tomography (CT) of the head were retrospectively included in the study. CT characteristics of the mass and involved structures were noted. Histological examinations were evaluated according to a human malignancy grading system for oral SCC, which considered four gra...
Occlusal Fissures in Equine Cheek Teeth: A Prospective Longitudinal in vivo Study. It has been suggested that fissures of the occlusal surface of equine cheek teeth may develop into crown fractures. To examine the evolution of fissures present on the occlusal surface of cheek teeth. Furthermore, to investigate the presence of a fissure as a risk factor for the development of a subsequent crown fracture. Observational longitudinal study. Bi-annual dental examinations were performed on 36 horses for 3 years. Video-recordings were made to evaluate the evolution of detected fissures. The effect of possible predictors on the development of tooth fractures was investigated by ...
Metastatic Ovarian Teratocarcinoma in a Horse. A 3-year-old Quarter Horse mare presented with an approximate 1-month history of progressive weight loss, anorexia and lethargy that abruptly worsened 48 h before death. Post-mortem examination revealed free flocculent fluid and a large mass within the ventral abdomen that dorsally displaced the caecum and large intestine. An ovarian teratocarcinoma with metastasis to regional lymph nodes was diagnosed histologically. Although benign teratomas are the second most common ovarian neoplasm in equids, reports of malignant teratomas in horses are rare. This report documents an unusual presentation...
Standing Sedation and Iocoregional Analgesia in Equine Dental Surgery. Procedural sedation has become popular for describing a semiconscious state that allows patients to be comfortable during certain surgical or diagnostic procedures. Sedation may be enhanced by locoregional anesthetic techniques to produce sufficient analgesia and muscle relaxation for surgery to occur. Sedation and local anesthesia for standing diagnostic and surgical procedures on the horse's head circumvents the potential complications of general anesthesia (particularly, complications related to recovery). However, the implementation of a locoregional anesthetic technique requires a thoroug...
The Yolk Sac of the Equine Placenta. Its Remnant and Potential Problems. This review details the current state of knowledge about the equine yolk sac and its remnant (YSR) in the pregnant mare, which, incidentally, is the only animal species known to exhibit large and/or ossified YSR. It also describes the clinical significance of the YSR and details a case of a strangulating YSR that caused fetal death and abortion.
A Comparative Neuro-Histological Assessment of Gluteal Skin Thickness and Cutaneous Nociceptor Distribution in Horses and Humans. The current project aims to build on knowledge of the nociceptive capability of equine skin to detect superficial acute pain, particularly in comparison to human skin. Post-mortem samples of gluteal skin were taken from men ( = 5) and women ( = 5), thoroughbreds and thoroughbred types (mares, = 11; geldings, = 9). Only sections that contained epidermis and dermis through to the hypodermis were analysed. Epidermal depth, dermal depth and epidermal nerve counts were conducted by a veterinary pathologist. The results revealed no significant difference between the epidermal nerve counts of human...
Thyrohyoideus muscle innervation in the horse. To describe the innervation of the thyrohyoideus (TH) muscle and to confirm our findings with stimulation of first cervical (C1) nerve branches. Methods: Ex vivo phase 1 and clinical phase 2. Methods: Fourteen head and neck specimens and 17 client-owned horses. Methods: In phase 1, the cranial nerve (CN) XII and the C1 nerve were dissected with their branches in 20 dissections were performed on 14 specimens (6 left and right side and 8 only left or right) Anatomy was noted. Samples of nerve bifurcations were collected for histological confirmation of anatomical findings. First cervical nerve b...
Radiographic assessment of carpal conformation in the horse: Technique development and validation of the consistency of measurements. Carpal conformation is often considered as a contributory factor to performance and lameness in the horse; however, few attempts have been made to objectively measure radiographic variations of carpal conformation in horses due to insufficient measurable carpal parameters. This pilot study used carpal radiographic images acquired from 10 cadaveric equine forelimbs transected at the antebrachial midshaft from 7 adult horses (7.2 ± 2.6 years), positioned at 'zero lateromedial' (ZLM) and 'zero dorsopalmar' (ZDP) views, to investigate the anatomy of the equine carpus and develop parameters tha...
Allometric growth in mass by the brain of mammals. I re-examined published data for ontogenetic change in relative mass of the brain in six species of mammal (i.e., sheep, pig, cow, horse, rat, cat) to illustrate an insidious problem with conventional analyses of brain-body allometry. Graphical displays of logarithmic transformations of the original data for each species give the appearance of two discrete mathematical distributions, but untransformed observations nonetheless conform to a single distribution that is well described by a single, nonlinear equation. The concept of biphasic, allometric growth by the brain consequently is an artifa...
Early evidence for mounted horseback riding in northwest China. Horseback riding was a transformative force in the ancient world, prompting radical shifts in human mobility, warfare, trade, and interaction. In China, domestic horses laid the foundation for trade, communication, and state infrastructure along the ancient Silk Road, while also stimulating key military, social, and political changes in Chinese society. Nonetheless, the emergence and adoption of mounted horseback riding in China is still poorly understood, particularly due to a lack of direct archaeological data. Here we present a detailed osteological study of eight horse skeletons dated to c...
En-bloc Auriculectomy for Removal of a Large Pinna-Based Ear Mass in a Horse. A 15-year-old Pony of America (POA) gelding presented for evaluation of a large mass present on the right external pinna. Based on gross appearance, the right ear mass was suspected to be neoplastic. The most likely differential diagnosis was that of a fibroblastic sarcoid. Complete auriculectomy via use of a constricting latex-tourniquet performed under multimodal analgesia was proposed as an option to achieve complete resolution of mass growth and improve patient comfort. Benefits of latex tourniquet constriction included immediate lack of bleeding associated with amputation, gradual ischemi...
Ultrasound-assisted injection of the centrodistal joint in the horse. Injection of the centrodistal (CD) joint in the horse is a commonly performed procedure for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. This procedure can be technically challenging, and while radiographic guidance has been previously used, ultrasound localised injection of the CD joint has not been described. Objective: The purpose of this study was to explore the feasibility of using ultrasound localisation to increase the accuracy of CD joint injection. Methods: Experimental method assessment. Methods: One operator performed the ultrasound and injection of 24 CD joints in 12 sedated horses. T...
Lamellar perfusion and energy metabolism in a preferential weight bearing model. Supporting limb laminitis (SLL) is suspected to be caused by lamellar ischaemia as a consequence of increased mechanical load. Objective: Examine the effects of prolonged preferential weight bearing (PWB) on lamellar perfusion and metabolism. Methods: In vivo experiment. Methods: Microdialysis probes were inserted in the lamellar and sublamellar dermis of one forelimb in 13 Standardbred horses. In six horses, a platform shoe (contralateral forelimb) was used to induce increased load on the microdialysis-instrumented forelimb (PWB). The remaining seven horses were controls (CON). All horses wer...
Comparison of histomorphometric characteristics of dorsal colon and pelvic flexure biopsy specimens obtained from horses with large colon volvulus that underwent resection. To determine the degree of histomorphometric damage in dorsal colon and pelvic flexure biopsy specimens (DCBSs and PFBSs, respectively) obtained from horses with large colon volvulus (LCV) and assess the accuracy of predicting short-term outcome for those horses on the basis of DCBS or PFBS characteristics. Methods: 18 horses with ≥ 360° LCV that underwent large colon resection. Methods: During surgery, biopsy specimens from the dorsal colon resection site and the pelvic flexure (when available) were collected from each horse. Interstitial-to-crypt (I:C) ratio (ratio of the lamina propria s...
Computed Tomographic Assessment of Individual Paranasal Sinus Compartment and Nasal Conchal Bulla Involvement in 300 Cases of Equine Sinonasal Disease. Computed tomographic (CT) imaging has allowed new anatomical studies and detailed clinical imaging of the complex, overlapping equine sinonasal structures. Despite the widespread use of CT, no study has specifically identified which compartments are most commonly affected with sinus disorders. CT has also shown the presence of intercurrent, ipsilateral nasal disorders, especially infection of the nasal conchal bullae (NCB) in many cases of sinus disease, but the frequency of intercurrent NCB infections has not been reported. To identify which sinus compartments are most commonly affected in ...
Immunohistochemical analysis of laryngeal muscle of horses clinically affected with recurrent laryngeal neuropathy. As myosin heavy chain (MyHC) profile of muscle fibres is heavily influenced by neural input, changes in MyHC expression are expected in horses clinically affected with recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN) yet, this has not been thoroughly investigated. Objective: To describe the changes in MyHC and fibre diameter in left cricoarytenoideus dorsalis (L-CAD) muscle of horses with clinical signs of RLN. Methods: Observational cohort study. Methods: Immunohistochemistry was used to assess the MyHC-based fibre-type proportion, size and grouping in the L-CAD of 10 Thoroughbred horses, five clinically...
An Unusual Case of Testicular Disorder in Sex Development of Arabian Mare (64,XX SRY-Negative). A 3-year-old Arabian mare underwent medical examinations due to the presence of abnormalities of the reproductive apparatus and stallion behavior (nervous temperament, aggressiveness, masculine attitude). During the clinical visit, an anovulvar distance shorter than normal was observed; moreover, vulvar lips were dorsally fused except for the lower neckline, showing a blind ending from which a penis-like structure protruded. The ultrasound examination revealed the presence of a cervix and corpus of a uterus, hypoplastic uterine horns, and small gonads with an echogenicity similar to a testis. ...
Diagnostic needle arthroscopy of the scapulohumeral joint in standing sedated horses. To describe the technique to perform diagnostic standing scapulohumeral joint needle arthroscopy with a 1.2-mm-diameter arthroscope in horses. Methods: Experimental study. Methods: Eight thoracic limbs in phase 1 and six horses in phase 2. Methods: In phase 1, the feasibility of the technique was evaluated by using a craniolateral arthroscopic approach. An evaluation of the visible structures of the scapulohumeral joint was performed with both a needle arthroscope and a 4-mm-diameter arthroscope. In phase 2, the technique was performed in six healthy sedated horses to validate the technique in...
