Topic:Behavior
Equine behavior encompasses the study of horses' actions, reactions, and interactions within their environment and with other living beings. It includes the examination of innate behaviors, such as grazing and herd dynamics, as well as learned behaviors influenced by training and human interaction. Understanding equine behavior is essential for improving horse welfare, training methods, and management practices. This topic covers a range of behaviors, from social structures and communication to stress responses and problem behaviors. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the various aspects of equine behavior, including factors that influence it and its implications for horse management and welfare.
Equine Discomfort Ethogram. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in and need for a comprehensive ethogram of discomfort behavior of horses, particularly for use in recognizing physical discomfort in domestically managed horses. A clear understanding of the physical discomfort behavior of horses among caretakers, trainers, and professional health care personnel is important to animal welfare and caretaker safety. This is particularly relevant to pain management for hospitalized equine patients. Various pain scale rubrics have been published, typically incorporating only a few classically cited pain behaviors...
Interspecific two-dimensional visual discrimination of faces in horses (Equus caballus). In social animals, recognizing conspecifics and distinguishing them from other animal species is certainly important. We hypothesize, as demonstrated in other species of ungulates, that horses are able to discriminate between the faces of conspecifics and the faces of other domestic species (cattle, sheep, donkeys and pigs). Our hypothesis was tested by studying inter-and intra-specific visual discrimination abilities in horses through a two-way instrumental conditioning task (discrimination and reversal learning), using two-dimensional images of faces as discriminative stimuli and food as a p...
Comparison of intraoperative cardiorespiratory and behavioral responses to medetomidine combined with tramadol or butorphanol during standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in horses. The purpose of this study was to assess the cardiorespiratory and behavioral responses to the combination of medetomidine and tramadol (M-T) or butorphanol (M-B) in standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in horses. One ovary was removed under M-T and the contralateral ovary was removed under M-B with at least 4 weeks between operations at random. Horses were sedated using intravenous medetomidine (5 µg/kg) followed by tramadol (1 mg/kg) or butorphanol (10 µg/kg) after 5 min. Sedation was maintained through the repeated injection of medetomidine (1 µg/kg) and tramadol (0.4 mg/kg) or medetomidine ...
Visitors’ Self-Reported Knowledge and Attitudes about an Animal-Free Exhibit on Animal Welfare. Public events such as state fairs provide valuable opportunities to provide informal animal welfare education, possibly changing people's decisions regarding animal welfare. This study evaluated whether an interactive animal-free exhibit increased visitors' self-reported knowledge and stated behavioral intentions related to animal welfare. The exhibit featured information about the behavior and welfare of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, poultry, horses, cats and dogs. Survey data were collected at two events in the Midwestern United States (Purdue University Spring Fest (FEST): n = 32; Indiana St...
Relationships between the Rider’s Pelvic Mobility and Balance on a Gymnastic Ball with Equestrian Skills and Effects on Horse Welfare. Riders need core stability to follow and guide the horse's movements and avoid giving unintended or conflicting signals. This study evaluated the rider's performance of exercises on a gymnastic ball with on-horse performance and indicators of stress in the horse. Twenty experienced riders were scored performing three exercises on a gymnastic ball and for quality and harmony when riding based on evaluation of video recordings in which conflict behaviours were evident. The horse's heart rate and number of conflict behaviors during the riding test and cortisol levels after completion of the test ...
From the Horse’s Perspective: Investigating Attachment Behaviour and the Effect of Training Method on Fear Reactions and Ease of Handling-A Pilot Study. The study investigated equine responses to novelty and handling, aiming to reveal whether horse-human relationships reflect criteria of an attachment bond. Twelve adult Standardbreds were subjected to a fear-eliciting test (novel objects presented close to two humans) and a handling test (being led passing novel objects) to study attachment-related behaviours and ease of handling. The tests were performed both before (pre-test) and after (post-test) horses had been trained by the same female handler (10 sessions of 15 min). Horses were assigned to three groups of four, each of which underwent ...
Dominance and Leadership in the Equine Social Structure: A Preliminary Study About Mules and Sex Influence. Little is known about the dominance and leadership behaviors in the social structure of mules (Equus caballus × Equus asinus). Based on the frequency of threat and aggressive behaviors, we compared the social structure, dominance, and leadership of independent groups of mules and horses (n = 11 per group), and filmed the frequency of these behaviors over a period of four days. In both groups, aggressions were uncommon and, when based on threats, the social structure was linear and consistent with males ranking higher in dominance. When compared to horses, mules exhibited some agonistic so...
Cross-sectional study of UK horse owner’s purchase and euthanasia decision-making for their horse. This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate factors affecting horse owners' purchase and euthanasia decisions that had been identified in a qualitative study. An online survey on horse owners' purchase and euthanasia decisions and experiences was distributed using snowball sampling. Inclusion criteria were previous experience of purchase or euthanasia decisions. Descriptive data analyses (mean, median, mode and frequency percentages) were performed. There were 451 participants from the UK and Ireland, 97% were female with a median age of 45 years. Participants most frequently did not seek ...
The Human-Horse Relationship: Identifying the Antecedents of Horse Owner Attitudes towards Horse Husbandry and Management Behaviour. The welfare of recreational horses is an important issue. Horse owner attitudes towards horse ownership are likely to influence owner behaviour in terms of horse husbandry and management practices and human-horse interactions, which in turn are likely to affect the welfare of the horse. Based on Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behaviour, this paper examines the relationships between horse owner attributes, specifically background factors (demographics, knowledge, and experience) and attitudes (beliefs) towards horse husbandry and management behaviour. Data were collected via a random telephone surve...
Equine Transport-Related Problem Behaviors and Injuries: A Survey of Italian Horse Industry Members. An online survey was conducted to determine associations between equine transport management and transport-related injuries and problem behaviors in Italy. The survey was composed of four sections: respondents' demographic information and background, transport management practices, journey details and vehicle design, and transport injuries experienced by the horse in the previous two-year period. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression with a binary outcome variable was performed to explore associations between variables (respondents' and journeys' details and transport practices) an...
Effects of Leaving Amputated Ovaries Intra-Abdominally during Elective Bilateral Standing Laparoscopic Ovariectomy in Equids. There is risk of dropping an amputated ovary within the abdomen during standing laparoscopic ovariectomies in mares. If the ovary can no longer be directly visualized with the laparoscope, the procedure is then converted to a flank laparotomy for manual retrieval of the ovary which negates the minimally invasive nature of the laparoscopic procedure. The objective was to identify if ovaries left in the abdomen after amputation would atrophy or if they re-vascularize. Standing bilateral ovariectomies were performed in mature mares, but after transection of the ovarian pedicle, the ovaries were i...
Hooves on the Beach; Horses Disrupt the Sand Matrix and Might Alter Invertebrate Assemblages on Beaches. Beaches are under increasing pressure from a wide range of anthropogenic threats, including human trampling, vehicular crushing, and horse riding/training. The impacts of horses on beaches are unknown. We index the relative abundance, diversity and assemblage composition of beach invertebrates at paired sites with and without horses at nine beaches (locations) across Victoria, Australia. Horses were more common at sites where they were allowed and sites (horse versus no horse) within beaches were well matched, having similar slope, seaweed coverage, human and dog activity-attributes which vari...
An Ethnographic Account of the British Equestrian Virtue of Bravery, and Its Implications for Equine Welfare. This article describes the virtue of bravery in British equestrian culture and suggests that riders' tactics for bolstering bravery may have negative implications on equine welfare. These observations are based on 14 months of ethnographic research among amateur riders and the professionals who support them (n = 35), utilising participant observation and Dictaphone recordings. Riders suffering from 'confidence issues' could be belittled and excluded. Instructors' approaches towards bolstering bravery involved encouraging riders to 'get tough'-on both themselves and on their horses. Narrative t...
Exploratory behaviour towards novel objects is associated with enhanced learning in young horses. The mechanisms underlying individual variation in learning are key to understanding the development of cognitive abilities. In humans and primates, curiosity has been suggested as an important intrinsic factor that enhances learning, whereas in domesticated species research has primarily identified factors with a negative effect on cognitive abilities, such as stress and fearfulness. This study presents the first evidence of a link between object-directed curiosity and learning performance in young horses in two very different learning tasks (visual discrimination and pressure-release). We exp...
A Review of Methods for Detecting Soreness in Horses During the last century and today, the Tennessee walking horse has been used primarily for pleasure and show competition. Unique and natural to the breed is a smooth four-beat “running walk” gait. In the 1950s the accentuated or exaggerated running walk, known as the “big lick” became popular at high-level competitions. The combination of exaggerated high-action step in front and long stride behind is still considered desirable in today's horse show competitions, and it is often achieved through soring. Soring is the practice of applying a substance or mechanical device to the lower li...
Appraising the Welfare of Thoroughbred Racehorses in Training in Queensland, Australia: The Incidence, Risk Factors and Outcomes for Horses after Retirement from Racing. There is international public concern regarding retirement of racehorses, including the reason for retirement and the outcome for horses after racing. However, there are currently no prospective studies investigating these factors. A recent independent inquiry in Queensland, Australia, highlighted that the true outcomes for horses after retirement from racing are largely unknown. Furthermore, there are currently no measures to monitor the outcome for racehorses and their welfare once they have left the care of the trainer. This study investigated these gaps in knowledge through a weekly survey...
Equine-assisted activities and therapies in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review. WHAT IS KNOWN ON THE SUBJECT?: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by problems of inattention and impulsive hyperactivity in children. Equine-assisted activities and therapies (EAATs) have been used as alternative non-pharmacological intervention option in patients with ADHD. WHAT DOES THIS PAPER ADDS TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE?: Nowadays, more studies of high methodological quality are needed to determine whether EAAT is an effective intervention for the treatment in children with ADHD. WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE?: Between 15 and 40 min of rising horses, 8...
Aerial drone observations identified a multilevel society in feral horses. The study of non-human multilevel societies can give us insights into how group-level relationships function and are maintained in a social system, but their mechanisms are still poorly understood. The aim of this study was to apply spatial association data obtained from drones to verify the presence of a multilevel structure in a feral horse society. We took aerial photos of individuals that appeared in pre-fixed areas and collected positional data. The threshold distance of the association was defined based on the distribution pattern of the inter-individual distance. The association rates o...
The Impact of the Sex of Handlers and Riders on the Reported Social Confidence, Compliance and Touch Sensitivity of Horses in Their Care. Current evidence of how human sex-related differences in riders and handlers may influence horse behaviour is limited. The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was used to collect demographic data on riders and handlers ( = 1420) and behavioural data on their horses. It includes demographic items about the sex of the respondent and how frequently the horse has been ridden or handled by male and female humans. The questionnaire then gathers observations on the horse's behaviour on the ground and under saddle or when driven Using E-BARQ's battery of 97 questions, the c...
Equine Responses to Acceleration and Deceleration Cues May Reflect Their Exposure to Multiple Riders. It is logical to assume that horses with multiple riders encounter variation in application of training cues. When training cues are inconsistent, we expect to see a decrease in trained responses or an increase in conflict behaviours. This study investigated the relationship between the number of people that regularly ride or handle a horse and the horse's response to operant cues. Data on 1819 equids were obtained from the Equine Behavior Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ), an online global survey of horse owners and caregivers. Three mutually independent indices (acceleration, de...
Effect of Pen Size on Stress Responses of Stall-Housed Horses Receiving One Hour of Daily Turnout. Group turnout provides important socializing opportunities for horses, particularly those that are primarily stalled. A high percentage of equine injuries occur during group turnout, which could partly be due to the physical constraints of fencing. To investigate appropriate paddock sizes for group turnouts, horses (n = 12) from a single herd were divided into groups of 4, stalled for 24 hours, and then turned out for 1 hour into one of three differently sized pens: 342, 263, and 184 m per horse. Groups rotated through pens across 3 days, receiving one treatment per day. Blood was sampled ...
The Effect of Water Flavor on Voluntary Water Intake in Hospitalized Horses. Hospitalized horses are at risk for colic due to several factors, all of which may reduce voluntary water intake (VWI) further contributing to the development of colic during hospitalization. Our objectives were to determine if using flavored water (sweet feed, peppermint, or apple-flavored electrolyte) increases VWI of hospitalized horses and to determine if horses consumed more flavored water versus plain water. We hypothesized that (1) in hospitalized horses the availability of flavored water results in more VWI than the availability of unflavored water and that (2) average intake of flavor...
Evaluation of Horses’ Daytime Activity Budget in a Model of Ethological Stable: A Case Study in Italy. The increasing interest in animal welfare and the knowledge of equine physiological and ethological needs have led to the development of different types of horses' management and housing systems. The research presented here aimed to assess the daytime activity budget of horses. Focal animal sampling was used as an observational sampling method, and the five animals were observed for a total of 9920 minutes in the paddock and inside the stall. The results showed that horses spent most of the daytime in foraging behaviors, followed by resting behaviors, and locomotion. Social behaviors (s.e. al...
Associations between Owners’ Reports of Unwanted Ridden Behaviour and In-Hand Behaviour in Horses. An evidence-based understanding of dangerous or unwelcome behaviour in horses would greatly benefit both horses and humans who interact with them. Using owner-reported data from the Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ), the current study investigated in-hand behaviours associated with dangerous or unwelcome ridden behaviours, notably bolting, rearing and bucking. Respondents ( = 1584) to the ridden horse section of the E-BARQ answered 42 demographic questions, followed by 268 behavioural items. Parallel analysis was conducted to group individual behaviours into rotat...
Palatability of Horse Treats: Comparing the Preferences of Horses and Humans. Despite its importance to product development, few data compare preferences for horses with human consumers. The objectives of this research were to compare treat preferences of horses against horse owners. Product A was a disk-shaped cinnamon-flavored flax-based treat, and product B was a textured apple-flavored oat-based treat. Horses were presented with two treat products in a paired preference test which comprised separate olfaction and consumption periods. Consumers evaluated the treats separately for purchase intent as well as hedonic testing of sensory attributes. No difference was obse...
EEG individual power profiles correlate with tension along spine in horses. Assessing chronic pain is a challenge given its subjective dimension. In humans, resting state electroencephalography (EEG) is a promising tool although the results of various studies are contradictory. Spontaneous chronic pain is understudied in animals but could be of the highest interest for a comparative study. Riding horses show a very high prevalence of back disorders thought to be associated with chronic pain. Moreover, horses with known back problems show cognitive alterations, such as a lower attentional engagement. Therefore, we hypothesized that the individual EEG power profiles res...
Heart rate variability in Konik and purebred Arabian horses in response to different predator vocalisations. The current predation threat of domestic horses is generally low, and horses do not know predators' frightening cues. We studied whether horses still recognise predation threats. The aim of the study was to analyse the emotional response of purebred Arabian horses (Arabian) and Polish Konik horses (Konik) to an Arabian panther (Panthera pardus nimr) (panther) growl and a grey wolf (Canis lupus) (wolf) howl. Panther vocalisation was known to Arabian ancestors, whereas ancestors of Konik knew wolf vocalisation. The response to the howls of golden jackals (Canis aureus) (jackal), which did not pr...
Introduction to automatic forage stations and measurement of forage intake rate in an active open barn for horses. Interest in the use of open barns on Swedish horse farms is increasing as an alternative to keeping horses in box stalls and as a 2007 law requires phasing out of tie stalls. To provide adequate forage to satisfy welfare requirements for nutrition, gut health and behavioural needs, the use of automated feeding is also increasing. Studies on forage intake rate report wide variation but provide little information on how to introduce horses to an automatic forage station and on how forage intake rate varies in individual horses fed using an automatic forage station. This study documented the proc...
Isolation of Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus from an abdominal abscess in an adult mare. A 12-year-old Warmblood mare was referred for evaluation of behavioral changes not explained by general physical examination or lameness evaluation. Transrectal ultrasound examination was performed to determine if the behavioral changes were related to ovarian abnormalities, and a large abscess was found near the base of the cecum. Laparoscopic-guided aspiration and lavage of the abscess cavity followed by injection of benzyl penicillin G was carried out. Culture of the lavage sample yielded subspecies , an organism not previously reported as an etiological agent in abdominal abscesses in hor...
Social Behaviour of Horses in Response to Vocalisations of Predators. We tested the hypothesis that social defensive responses to the vocalisation of a predator still exist in horses. The recordings of a grey wolf, an Arabian leopard and a golden jackal were played to 20 Konik polski and Arabian mares. Durations of grazing, standing still, standing alert and the number of steps in walk and trot/canter were measured. In one-minute scans, the distances of the focal horse from the reference horse (DIST-RH) and from the nearest loudspeaker (DIST-LS) were approximated. The vocalisation of a leopard aroused the Arabians more than the Koniks (less grazing, stand-still ...