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Topic:Biomechanics
Biomechanics in horses refers to the study of the mechanical principles that govern movement and physical function in equine species. This field encompasses the analysis of gait, locomotion, and the forces exerted by and upon the horse's musculoskeletal system. Biomechanical studies often involve the use of motion capture technology, force plates, and computer modeling to assess how horses move and how various factors, such as conformation, training, and health status, influence their performance and soundness. Research in equine biomechanics contributes to understanding injury prevention, rehabilitation, and performance optimization. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanics of movement, the impact of external and internal forces, and the applications of biomechanical analysis in equine care and management.
Agreement between accelerometric symmetry scores and clinical lameness scores during experimentally induced transient distension of the metacarpophalangeal joint in horses. Equine lameness examination is based on subjective visual scoring of lameness. Instrumented objective methods for lameness examinations may be complicated to perform and the equipment is often stationary. Accelerometry has a potential clinical use; however, the reduction and interpretation of equine accelerometric data are not yet routine and the value of accelerometry in equine lameness examination is unclear. Objective: To use accelerometric data to calculate 2 different accelerometric symmetry scores and to evaluate the agreement of these with traditional lameness scores done by experienced...
Variation in frontal plane joint angles in horses. Conformation in horses is often considered an indicator of athletic ability, performance and resistance to orthopaedic disease. Evaluation is performed in the standing horse and repeatability influenced by stance. Ground reaction forces increase in the moving horse as speed increases. Objective: To determine the effect of locomotion on equine carpus, tarsus, metacarpophalangeal (MCP) and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints in the frontal plane. Objective: Valgus/varus angulation will change when moving. Methods: Kinematic data were collected standing, walking and trotting for 2 groups of horses. ...
Differences in the metabolic properties of gluteus medius and superficial digital flexor muscles and the effect of water treadmill training in the horse. Flexor tendon injury may be due to flexor muscle fatigue, contributing to fetlock joint hyperextension and tendon damage. A water treadmill provides resistance training on flexor tendon muscles, which might reduce the risk of tendon injury. Objective: To determine the effect of water treadmill training on the properties of the gluteal and superficial digital flexor (SDF) muscles and on cardiocirculatory response to a standardised exercise test. Methods: Five healthy unfit horses were trained on a water treadmill for 5 days/week for 4 weeks, starting with 5 min/day increasing to 20 min/day. Bef...
Mechanical properties of the equine superficial digital flexor tendon relate to specific collagen cross-link levels. Damage to the flexor tendons, particularly the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), is one of the most common musculoskeletal injuries sustained by horses competing in all disciplines. Our previous work has shown that SDFTs from different individuals show a wide variation in mechanical strengths; this is important clinically as it may relate to predisposition to injury. The high mechanical strength of tendon relies on the correct orientation of collagen molecules within fibrils and stabilisation by the formation of chemical cross-links between collagen molecules. It is not known whether t...
Electromyography activity of the equine splenius muscle and neck kinematics during walk and trot on the treadmill. Skeletal muscle activity can be concentric or eccentric, anisometric or isometric and correlation of the equine splenius muscle activity with the movement of its effector joints at walk and trot has not yet been fully characterised. Objective: Investigating activity of the splenius muscle together with kinematics of head and cranial neck at walk and trot. Methods: Kinematics and surface electromyography were measured in 6 horses (8-20-years-old, 450-700 kg) without signs of neck pain. Markers were placed on left and right crista facialis, and on left and right cervical vertebrae 1 and 3. Head ...
Comparison of kinematic symmetry index calculations and the effects of straight and circular trotting. When assessing lameness in horses, left to right ratios of kinematic parameters are often used to quantify movement symmetry. Different methods of symmetry related measures have been proposed and inertial sensor data was used to evaluate the application of 3 methods of symmetry calculation during straight and circular trotting. Objective: To compare 3 sensor based methods of symmetry index calculation to assess; tuber coxae vs. sacrum motion, the effects of circular trotting and effect of using whole trials in place of individual stride calculations. Methods: Inertial sensors were attached to ...
The effect of treadmill speed and gradient on equine hindlimb muscle activity. Locomotion requires successful negotiation of different terrains, but we currently know little of how the musculoskeletal system adapts to cope with positive and negative slopes. Objective: To compare the effects of treadmill speed and gradient on equine hindlimb muscle mean electromyographic (EMG) intensity. Methods: Surface EMG recorded the activity of gluteus medius (GM), biceps femoris (BF), vastus lateralis (VL), gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) in 6 horses at walk (1.4-1.6 m/s) and trot (2.6-3 m/s) on 3 different treadmill gradients (0, 10% and -10%). Sign...
Metacarpal geometry changes during Thoroughbred race training are compatible with sagittal-plane cantilever bending. Bending of the equine metacarpal bones during locomotion is poorly understood. Cantilever bending, in particular, may influence the loading of the metacarpal bones and surrounding structures in unique ways. Objective: We hypothesised that increased amounts of sagittal-plane cantilever bending may govern changes to the shape of the metacarpal bones of Thoroughbred racehorses during training. We hypothesised that this type of bending would require a linear change to occur in the combined second moment of area of the bones for sagittal-plane bending (I) during race training. Methods: Six Thorough...
Velocity-dependent changes of time, force and spatial parameters in Warmblood horses walking and trotting on a treadmill. Gait analysis parameters are sensitive to alterations in velocity. For comparison of nonspeed-matched data, the velocity dependency needs to be known. Objective: To describe the changes in gait pattern and determine the relationships between stride duration, vertical impulse, contact time and peak vertical force within a range of walking and trotting speeds. Methods: Thirty-eight nonlame Warmblood horses were subjected to an incremental speed test. The spans of speed were adjusted individually to each horse and ranged from 1.1-2.1 m/s at walk and from 2.5-5.8 m/s at trot. Time, force and spati...
Activity of the equine rectus abdominis and oblique external abdominal muscles measured by surface EMG during walk and trot on the treadmill. The rectus abdominis (RA) and oblique external abdominal (OEA) muscles are both part of the construction of the equine trunk and thought to be essential for the function of the spine during locomotion. Although RA activity at trot has previously been investigated, the relationship between OEA and RA at walk and trot has not yet been described. Objective: To document abdominal muscle activities during walk and trot, and test the hypothesis that muscle activity at walk would be smaller than at trot. Methods: Six horses (8-20 years old, 450-700 kg) were used for surface electromyography (EMG) mea...
The role of tendon stiffness in development of equine locomotion with age. The flexor tendons support the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) and distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints during stance phase and since tendon stiffness and strain changes with age, it is likely that kinematics are also age-dependent. Objective: Maximum MCP and DIP angles decrease in the young horse, plateau in the mature horse and increase towards senescence. Methods: The distal limbs of 57 walking horses age 3-212 months were filmed and digitised with an automated tracking system. Maximum MCP and DIP angles during stance phase were used to calculate strain in the superficial and deep digital flexor t...
Effect of head and neck position on outcome of quantitative neuromuscular diagnostic techniques in Warmblood riding horses directly following moderate exercise. There has been growing interest in training techniques with respect to the head and neck position (HNP) of the equine athlete. Little is known about the influence of HNP on neuromuscular transmission in neck muscles. Objective: To test the hypothesis that different HNPs have effect on single fibre (SF), quantitative electromyographic (QEMG) examination and muscle enzyme activity directly after moderate exercise. Methods: Seven Warmblood horses were studied using a standard exercise protocol in 5 HNPs: HNP1: unrestrained; HNP2: neck raised; bridge of nose around the vertical; HNP4: neck lowered...
A pilot study on objective quantification and anatomical modelling of in vivo head and neck positions commonly applied in training and competition of sport horses. Head and neck positions (HNP) in sport horses are under debate in the equine community, as they could interfere with equine welfare. HNPs have not been quantified objectively and no information is available on their head and neck loading. Objective: To quantify in vivo HNPs in sport horses and develop o a model to estimate loading on the cervical vertebrae in these positions. Methods: Videos were taken of 7 Warmbloods at walk on a straight line in 5 positions, representing all HNPs during Warmblood training and competition. Markers were glued at 5 anatomical landmarks. Two-dimensional angles a...
Dynamic mobilisations in cervical flexion: Effects on intervertebral angulations. Based upon human data, it is probable that many conditions associated with neck pain in horses may benefit from performing mobilisation exercises as part of the rehabilitation protocol. Objective: To compare sagittal plane intervertebral angulations in a neutral standing position with the angulations at end range of motion in 3 dynamic mobility exercises performed in cervical flexion. Methods: Sagittal plane motion of the head, neck and back were measured in 8 sound horses standing in a neutral position and in 3 end-of-range neck flexion positions: chin-to-chest, chin-between-carpi, and chin-b...
Influence of girth strap placement and panel flocking material on the saddle pressure pattern during riding of horses. Saddle fit is well recognised as an important factor for the health and performance of riding horses. However, only few studies have addressed general effects of different saddle construction details within a group of horses. Objective: To assess the influence of girth strap placement, traditional vs. v-system, and panel flocking material, wool vs. synthetic foam, on the saddle pressure pattern during riding. Methods: Six horses were ridden by 3 riders in sitting and rising trot and sitting canter. Saddle pressure was measured with 3 different saddle variants: 1) wool flocked panels and tradit...
The relationship between massage to the equine caudal hindlimb muscles and hindlimb protraction. Massage is widely used in physiotherapy, but there has been little previous research examining its effectiveness in increasing equine soft tissue length. Objective: To determine the effect of massage on equine hindlimb protraction. We hypothesised that massage to the caudal muscles of the equine hindlimb, specifically the superficial gluteal, semitendinosus, biceps femoris and semimembranosus muscles, can increase passive and active hindlimb protraction. Methods: The study used a crossover design in which 8 horses were randomly assigned to 2 groups of 4, A and B. Group A received massage for 3...
Preliminary report into the function of the shoulder using a novel imaging and motion capture approach. The function of the forelimb is fundamental to understanding both sound and pathological locomotion. The precise movements of the equine shoulder are hidden by layers of skin and muscle and hence the shoulder is normally modelled as a simple pivot during locomotion which assumes that any translational motion is negligible. Objective: To record and quantify the sliding motion of the scapula during locomotion, using a novel imaging technique. Methods: Scapula motion during locomotion in the horse was calculated by tracking the ripple of the shoulder blade's movement under an array of markers pla...
Inertial sensors for assessment of back movement in horses during locomotion over ground. Assessing back movement is an important part of clinical examination in the horse and objective assessment tools allow for evaluating success of treatment. Objective: Accuracy and consistency of inertial sensor measurements for quantification of back movement and movement symmetry during over ground locomotion were assessed; sensor measurements were compared to optical motion capture (mocap) and consistency of measurements focusing on movement symmetry was measured. Methods: Six nonlame horses were trotted in hand with synchronised mocap and inertial sensor data collection (landmarks: T6, T10,...
Quantification of equine sacral and iliac motion during gait: a comparison between motion capture with skin-mounted and bone-fixated sensors. Information regarding movement at the ilium and sacrum in nonlame horses during normal gait may assist in understanding the biomechanics of the equine sacroiliac joint. Objective: To determine the amount and direction of motion at the ilium and sacrum using 3D orientation sensors during walk and trot in sound Thoroughbreds. To compare results from sensors fixed to the skin with results from sensors fixed to bone-implanted pins. Methods: Three 3D wireless orientation sensors were mounted to the skin over the tuber sacrale (TS) and sacrum of 6 horses and motion at the ilium and sacrum was record...
Kinematic characteristics of hoof landing in jumping horses at elite level. Biomechanical events of the distal limb during the landing phase of a jump have been proposed to be risk factors for injury, indicating need for further characterisation of the landing and the hoof-surface interaction. This is essential also for valid testing of arena surfaces when simulating actual conditions. Objective: To investigate the hoof landing characteristics for different limbs of elite showjumping horses during the landing phase when jumping 1.30-1.50 m competition fences on 2 different arena surfaces. Methods: A single, fixed high speed camera (1000 frames/s) was aimed at landing ...
Saddle pressure patterns of three different training saddles (normal tree, flexible tree, treeless) in Thoroughbred racehorses at trot and gallop. To a large extent the success of a racehorse depends on effective and health preserving training methods. An important issue is the prevention of back pain. The influence of different types of training saddles (normal tree: S(A), treeless: S(B), flexible tree: S(C)) on the saddle pressure patterns in racehorses have not previously been investigated. It is commonly assumed that S(A) limits the motion of the back especially in the lower thoracic region during gallop. Objective: S(A) produces higher pressures in the caudal part of the saddle at trot (rising trot), canter and gallop (both in a joc...
Saddle and leg forces during lateral movements in dressage. In the equestrian world it is assumed that riders use changes in weight distribution and leg forces as important instruments to give horses directions about speed and direction of movement. However, the changes of these forces have never been quantified. Objective: To investigate the distribution of normal forces (perpendicular to surface) underneath the saddle and of normal forces exerted by the rider's legs during lateral movements. Methods: Eleven riders performed 3 different exercises: riding straight ahead, shoulder-in and travers at trot. Three saddle force systems were used simultaneous...
Biomechanical analysis of hoof landing and stride parameters in harness trotter horses running on different tracks of a sand beach (from wet to dry) and on an asphalt road. Sandy beaches are often considered good training surfaces for trotter horses. However, their biomechanical effects on locomotion are insufficiently documented. Events at hoof impact have mostly been studied under laboratory conditions with accelerometers, but there is lack of data (acceleration, force, movement) on events occurring under every day practical conditions in the field. Objective: To investigate hoof landing and stride parameters on different tracks (from wet to dry) of a sand beach and on an asphalt road. Methods: The right front hoof of 4 trotter horses was equipped with a triaxi...
Ground reaction force and kinematic analysis of limb loading on two different beach sand tracks in harness trotters. Although beach training is commonly used in horses, limb loading on beach sand has never been investigated. A dynamometric horseshoe (DHS) is well adapted for this purpose. Objective: To compare ground reaction force (GRF) and fetlock kinematics measured in harness trotters on 2 tracks of beach sand with different water content. Methods: Two linear sand tracks were compared: firm wet sand (FWS, 19% moisture) vs. deep wet sand (DWS, 13.5% moisture). Four French trotters (550 ± 22 kg) were used. Their right forelimb was equipped with a DHS and skin markers. Each track was tested 3 times at 7 m/...
Use of an implantable transducer to measure force in the superficial digital flexor tendon in horses at walk, trot and canter on a treadmill. Although the main cause of injury to the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) is assumed to be high intensity loading of the tendon, to date the forces exerted on the SDFT during cantering have never been measured. Objective: To measure the force exerted on the SDFT at walk, trot and canter on a treadmill. Methods: Arthroscopically implantable force probes (AIFP) were implanted in the SDFT of the left and right forelimbs of 8 Thoroughbred horses (480-565 kg). The output of the AIFP was calibrated using the SDFT force calculated by inverse dynamics and an in vitro model of the lower forelim...
Horizontal moment around the hoof centre of pressure during walking on right and left circles. Recent research indicates that the digital joints experience some degree of extrasagittal motion during stance and that the moments under the hoof are asymmetric in horses walking in a straight line. On a circle, these have not been defined. Objective: To quantify the amplitude and symmetry of horizontal twisting moments around the vertical axis through the hoof's centre of pressure on left and right circles at walk. Methods: Six Thoroughbred horses were led at walk across a Kistler force platform on a left and a right circle of 5 m radius. The resultant moment around the hoof was calculated f...
Fractures of the distal phalanx and associated soft tissue and osseous abnormalities in 22 horses with ossified sclerotic ungual cartilages diagnosed with magnetic resonance imaging. Ungual cartilage ossification in the forelimb is a common finding in horses. Subtle abnormalities associated with the ungual cartilages can be difficult to identify on radiographs. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging findings of 22 horses (23 forelimbs) with a fracture of the distal phalanx and ossified ungual cartilage were characterized and graded. All horses had a forelimb fracture. Eleven involved a left forelimb (seven medial; four lateral), and 12 involved a right forelimb (five medial; seven lateral). All fractures were nonarticular, simple in configuration, and nondisplaced. The fractures ...
The effect of anisotropic collagen-GAG scaffolds and growth factor supplementation on tendon cell recruitment, alignment, and metabolic activity. Current surgical and tissue engineering approaches for treating tendon injuries have shown limited success, suggesting the need for new biomaterial strategies. Here we describe the development of an anisotropic collagen-glycosaminoglycan (CG) scaffold and use of growth factor supplementation strategies to create a 3D platform for tendon tissue engineering. We fabricated cylindrical CG scaffolds with aligned tracks of ellipsoidal pores that mimic the native physiology of tendon by incorporating a directional solidification step into a conventional lyophilization strategy. By modifying the freez...
Biomechanical characterisation of equine laryngeal cartilage. Upper airway obstruction is a common problem in the performance horse as the soft tissues of the larynx collapse into the airway, yet there is a paucity of information on biomechanical properties for the structural cartilage components. Objective: To measure the geometry and compressive mechanical properties of the hyaline cartilage to improve understanding of laryngeal function and morphology. Methods: A total of 11 larynges were harvested from Thoroughbred and Standardbred racehorses. During gross dissection, linear dimensions of the cricoid were obtained. From both the cricoid and arytenoid...
In vitro biomechanical comparison of dynamic compression plates with a rough contact surface and a polished contact surface for fixation of osteotomized equine third metacarpal bones. To compare the number of cycles to failure of 4.5 mm broad dynamic compression plates (DCP), 4.5 mm broad limited-contact dynamic compression plates (4.5-LC-DCP), and 5.5 mm broad limited-contact dynamic compression plates (5.5-LC-DCP) having a rough (denoted by a prefix R-) versus a standard smooth contact surface for the fixation of osteotomized equine 3rd metacarpal (MC3) bones. Methods: Experimental. Methods: Fifteen pairs of adult equine cadaveric MC3 bones. Methods: Fifteen pairs of equine MC3 were divided into 3 test groups (5 pairs each) for comparison of (1) R-DCP fixation with DCP fi...
