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Topic:Biomechanics
Biomechanics in horses refers to the study of the mechanical principles that govern movement and physical function in equine species. This field encompasses the analysis of gait, locomotion, and the forces exerted by and upon the horse's musculoskeletal system. Biomechanical studies often involve the use of motion capture technology, force plates, and computer modeling to assess how horses move and how various factors, such as conformation, training, and health status, influence their performance and soundness. Research in equine biomechanics contributes to understanding injury prevention, rehabilitation, and performance optimization. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanics of movement, the impact of external and internal forces, and the applications of biomechanical analysis in equine care and management.
Evaluation of equine radial and median nerve conduction velocities. Eleven ponies and 13 horses were used to develop a technique for determining conduction velocity for the radial and median nerves and establishing normal limits for these values. One pony was euthanatized to determine the course of the radial and the median nerves. From this dissection, both proximal and distal stimulation sites for the radial and the median nerves were selected, as well as areas for recording muscle evoked responses from the abductor digiti I longus (extensor carpi obliquus) and the radial head of the deep digital flexor muscles. The other ten ponies and the horses were used ...
Improved measurements of shear modulus and pleural membrane tension of the lung. The continuum solution for the deformation of an elastic half space covered by a membrane is used to interpret measurements of the indentation of lung lobes under a column of fluid. The shear modulus mu of the underlying parenchyma is found to be approximately 0.7 times transpulmonary pressure, independent of species size. The tension in the pleural membrane T increases rapidly with increasing membrane area. For dog lungs, the value of T is 10(3) to 10(4) dyn/cm. For the larger species tested, pigs and horses, T is larger. The continuum solution shows that a concentrated force applied to the p...
Variability in erythrocyte deformability among various mammals. Deformability is an important aspect of erythrocyte physiology and has been extensively studied using human red cells. We have studied erythrocytes from 25 different animals using a viscometric technique. Erythrocyte diameters ranged from 3.3 microns in the goat to 11.4 microns for the elephant seal. Erythrocytes from most species deformed readily when a fluid shear stress was applied. A deformability index of the stressed cell defined as (length - width)/(length + width) correlated with cell size. The erythrocytes of four animals (pygmy goat, goat, Batanga horse, and miniature horse) deformed...
Dynamics of the hind limb at walk in horse and dog. The dynamics of the hind limbs of the horse and dog at walk are compared. The kinematics were studied by electromyography of animals walking on a moving belt, and by cinephotography in horses walking on the ground and in dogs walking on a moving belt and on the ground.
This study reveals that: 1) the retraction of the hoof or foot relative to the hip at the end of the support phase is less in the horse than in the dog; 2) the change in the sense of the movements of the hind limb segments at the end of the support phase and at the beginning of the swing phase occurs earlier in the horse (55â...
Tendon and ligament from the horse: an ultrastructural study of collagen fibrils and elastic fibres as a function of age. A study has been made of the ultrastructural organization of the collagen fibrils and elastic fibres in tendons and ligaments from horses of ages ranging from 2 months premature to 19 years. Diameter distributions of the collagen fibrils in the common digital extensor tendon, the superficial flexor tendon and the suspensory ligament are unimodal in the foetal tissue and at birth, and at these stages of development the three collagenous tissues are virtually indistinguishable. However, at maturity, the ligament and flexor tendon have bimodal distributions similar to that found for rat-tail tend...
A study of the normal range of strain, strain rate, and stiffness of tendon. This paper describes the result of an investigation of strains and strain rates which normally occur in the tendons of the equine foreleg and presents stress-strain curves and moduli for the tendons at these rates. It has previously been demonstrated that resistance to flexion of the joints of the distal part of the equine foreleg is provided by a passive system of tendons and ligaments. It is therefore possible, using a large displacement, high-rate testing machine, to duplicate in the laboratory the strain rates and forces which are normally produced in the tendons of the foreleg of the runn...
An experimental study on the role of the reciprocal tendinous apparatus of the horse at walk. The locomotor pattern of the hind limb of seven horses has been studied in intact animals and after transection of the following structures: the peroneus tertius tendon, the cranial tibial muscle, both cranial tibial muscle and peroneus tertius tendon, and the superficial digital flexor tendon. The investigation was carried out by high speed cinematography and electromyography. It is concluded that (1) the muscles and tendons over the cranial aspect of the tibia play an important role during the support phase; (2) the movements of the hind limb may be performed without the action of the crania...
A laboratory system for production of flexion rates and forces in the forelimb of the horse. The distal portion of the forelimb of the horse is provided with a stay apparatus composed of tendons, ligaments, and fascia. This stay apparatus provides the major resistance to joint flexion during the support phase of the stride. The laboratory test system described was shown to be able to reproduce in vitro limb motions and hoof forces measured with a running horse. These results indicated the stay apparatus operates in a largely passive mode, active muscle contraction apparently serving to provide rigidity only early in the support phase of the stride. The testing system described was des...
Surgical implications of extensibility of the skin of the equine carpus. To determine the lines of maximum extensibility of the skin over the equine carpus, round puncture wounds were made 2.0 cm apart over the carpal area of 5 horses (7 carpi). The direction of elongation of the round puncture wound was observed and photographed. Lines of maximum extensibility that occurred over the surfaces of the equine carpus were determined to be proximal to distal, except in a small area over the accessory carpal bone where a state of anisotropism existed. In an immobilized carpus, direction of a surgical incision was not as important as it was in a mobile carpus, in which th...
Biokinetical analysis of the movements of the pelvic limb of the horse and the role of the muscles in the walk and the trot. The movements of the right hind limb of horses with normal locomotion were studied using cinephotography and electromyography. A model of the cycle of a stride in the walk and the trot was constructed and the kinetic parameters of the segments of the limb were calculated. A good correlation was obtained between the kinetics and the periods of the cycle of a stride during which individual muscles display activity. The results of this study demonstrate that: at placing and lifting, i.e., when a change occurs in the direction of the movement of the limb; b) At the walk, the greatest forces operan...
A relationship between gait and breakdown in the horse. A biomechanical model of running has been presented. A basic premise has been that the swing time is nearly independent of speed. In fact, both the racehorse and the trotter have nearly equal swing times. Consequently, as speed increases and the stance phase becomes shorter, the horse must compensate by increasing his extension or the length of the airborne phase (or both). The safe speed which allows the horse adequate preparation time for contact of a leg with the ground is calculated, using a stride-by-stride analysis of the motion of the horse. This is seen to be a very sensitive function ...
Bending properties of cortical bone of the horse. Bending properties of samples of cortical bone taken from the cranial, caudal, medial, and lateral quadrants of the midshaft of the radius, femur, and metacarpus of 12 ponies, 18 months old, were determined by 4-point loading at a rate of 10 mm/minute. The elastic modulus for all samples was between 16.2 and 20.2 GN/m2, and the ultimate breaking strength, between 204 and 255 MN/m2. There was greater variation in these properties between bone quadrants than between bones. Samples from the cranial and medial quadrants of both femur and radius were stiffer and had greater ultimate breaking streng...
Telemetric measurements of strain in the metacarpus of the horse: a pilot study. The advances made by the use of a telemetric system in the study of bone strain in a free-moving horse are reported. A rosette strain gauge was bonded to the craniomedial aspect of the metacarpus of the horse. Attachment of a miniature FM transmitter to lead wires facilitated telemetric transmission of of resistance changes which corresponded to limb movement. During 3 different gaits, the trace pattern remained similar, although frequency and amplitude varied. The tracings were similar to those reported in other species in which nontelemetric transmission was used.
A comparative study of the mechanical properties in aging alveolar wall. Alveolar wall from the lung of aging humans shows a progressive decrease in maximal extensibility, which should follow an increase in resting tissue length rather than a reduction in maximal length. An increase in resting tissue length is compatible with the change in lung volumes and reduction in elastic recoil that occurs with time. A model of the lung was used to compare the effects of a change in resting tissue length in diminishing elastic recoil with that of a reduction in the volume density of the elastic elements (emphysema). Such differentiation is important in selecting an animal tha...
Scanning electron microscopy of equine synovial membrane. The scanning electron microscopy of synovial membrane from the radiocarpal and intercarpal joints near the lateral and medial borders of the tendon of the extensor carpi radialis muscle was studied in 5 ponies. Three different morphologic types of synovial membrane were observed. Type 1 synovial membrane was folded and had a surface mat of fibers separated by 1- to 5-micron-diameter holes. The 2nd and 3rd types of synovial membrane were both villous. The surface of type 2 synovial membrane was fibrillar but the surface of type 3 synovial membrane was cellular. The type of synovial membrane pre...
Exercise studies in horses: 1. A simple telemetry system for recording excercise ECGs in horses. A robust low cost portable radiotelemetry system is described for the horse and its method of operation and advantages briefly discussed. The equipment consisted of 2 electrodes forming a bipolar lead, a transmitter, a receiver and a writing device. The sitting, application and immobilising of the electrodes was a most important factor in obtaining good quality recordings. ECGs were recorded at all paces and also while jumping and the results proved satisfactory.
