The skeletal system in horses comprises a complex structure of bones that provide support, protection, and mobility. Equine bones are involved in various physiological functions, including mineral storage and hematopoiesis. The bone structure in horses is categorized into different types, such as long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones, each serving specific roles in movement and stability. Research in this area explores topics such as bone development, remodeling, and the impact of nutrition and exercise on bone health. This page gathers peer-reviewed studies and academic articles that focus on the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of bones in horses, offering insights into conditions such as fractures, bone diseases, and the effects of aging on the equine skeletal system.
Seabaugh KA, Hubert JD, Kawcak CE, McGilvray KC, Santoni BG, Rao S, Baxter GM.To quantify changes in biomechanical stability and stiffness within the equine carpus after removal of 50%, 80%, and 100% of the second metacarpal bone (MC2). Methods: In vitro biomechanical study. Methods: Cadaveric equine forelimbs (n = 16) were evaluated. Intact constructs were loaded in axial compression from 0 to 5000 N and compression + torsion (5000 N ± 20°) for 5 cycles. This was repeated after removal of 50%, 80%, and 100% of MC2. The primary biomechanical outcome variables were the compressive stiffness and compressive + torsional stiffness of the carpus. Relative kinematic motion ...
Dzierzecka M, Charuta A.The bone mineral density (BMD) and the bone mineral content (BMC) in the bone tissue of the bilateral first phalanges of horses' thoracic limbs were analysed. The research material consisted of isolated pastern bones derived from 22 horses. The research was conducted with the use of a Norland model Excell Plus densitometer (Fort Atkinson WI, USA), using affinited beam X-ray technology and an animal research programme (Research Scan, 3.9.6. version) at the following parameters: scanning resolution of 1.5 x 1.5 mm, scanning speed 60 mm/s. The differences between BMC and BMD values in bilateral f...
Quinteros DD, García-López JM, Abuja GA, Tarkanian M, Maranda LS, Bubeck K, Kowaleski MP.To determine if the mechanical properties (strength and stiffness) of a new prototype 4.5 mm broad locking plate (NP-LP) are comparable with those of a traditional 4.5 mm broad limited-contact self compression plate (LC-SCP), and to compare the bending and torsional properties of the NP-LP and LC-SCP when used in osteotomized equine third metacarpal bones (MC3). Methods: The plates alone were tested in four-point bending single cycle to failure. The MC3-plate constructs were created with mid-diaphyseal osteotomies with a 1 cm gap. Constructs were tested in four-point bending single cycle to fa...
Silver K, Desormaux A, Freeman LC, Lillich JD.Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are among the most widely used drugs for the suppression of inflammation and pain. However, the analgesic properties of NSAIDs are also associated with significant negative side effects, most notably in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Increasingly, evidence indicates that the ulcerogenic properties of some NSAIDs are not exclusively the result of inhibition of cyclooxygenase isoforms in the GI tract, and other mechanisms, including inhibition of cell migration and epithelial restitution, are being explored. Recently, microarray analysis was used ...
Méndez-Angulo JL, Swaab ME, Malone E, Olson EJ, Chalkley MD, Aird B, Ward C.A 12-year-old Quarter horse gelding was presented for evaluation of severe right forelimb lameness, 2 draining tracts over the lateral aspect of the right proximal antebrachium, and weight loss. A presumptive diagnosis of blastomycotic osteomyelitis was established based on radiographs and cytology of the exudate. This diagnosis was confirmed at necropsy. Un hongre Quarter horse âgé de 12 ans a été présenté avec une boiterie grave du membre antérieur droit, 2 faisceaux de drainage sur l’aspect latéral de l’avant-bras droit proximal et une perte de poids. Un diagnostic par infér...
Furniss C, Carstens A, van den Berg SS.This study involves the evaluation of pre-purchase radiographic studies of South African Thoroughbred yearlings. Radiographic changes were recorded and compared with similar international studies. The study differs from other studies in that a lower prevalence of pedal osteitis (1.26%), dorsal osteochondral fragmentation of the metatarsophalangeal joint (1.60%), distal metacarpal sagittal ridge changes (15.7%), ulnar carpal bone lucencies (8.33%), carpal osteophytes (1.19%), distal intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joint radiographic changes (9.92%), tarsal osteochondrosis lesions (4.40%) and st...
Katzman SA, Nieto JE, Arens AM, MacDonald MH, Puchalski SM, Galuppo LD, Snyder JR, Maher O, Bell RJ.To assess clinical outcomes and scintigraphic findings in horses with a bone fragility disorder (BFD) treated with zoledronate (a nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate). Methods: Prospective uncontrolled clinical trial. Methods: 10 horses with evidence of a BFD. Methods: Signalment, history, and geographic location of horses' home environments were recorded. Physical examinations, lameness evaluations, and nuclear scintigraphy were performed. Diagnosis of a BFD was made on the basis of results of clinical and scintigraphic examination. Each horse was treated with zoledronate (0.075 mg/kg [0.034 m...
Becvarova I, Buechner-Maxwell V.The nutrition and nutritional status of the mare, as well as foal's nutrient intake from colostrum, milk and creep feed, are critical factors that are known to influence the growth period of the foal. Long-term effects of mare and foal nutrition are not well recognised or understood in the horse but may have the greatest impact on the animal's health and use when mature. Both under- and overfeeding can negatively influence important characteristics such as bone development and neurological function The risk of developing debilitating diseases such as metabolic syndrome may also be increased by...
Alrtib AM, Philip CJ, Abdunnabi AH, Davies HM.There are many reports describing fractures in the bony elements of the equine fetlock joint and a few of these discuss possible relationships of these fractures to the mechanical loading of these bones. The likelihood of fracture must be related to the size and shape of bones involved, but information concerning the normal range in size and shape of these bones in horses is lacking. This study aimed to identify morphometrical variations of these bones within different groups of horses. Right and left metacarpal, proximal phalangeal and proximal sesamoid bones were collected from 10 Thoroughbr...
Simon V, Dyson SJ.We compared the radiographic and scintigraphic findings in the third carpal bone of horses performing different work disciplines and investigated their relationship with lameness. Horses had undergone carpal radiography including acquisition of a dorsoproximal-dorsodistal oblique (DPr-DDiO) image of the distal row of carpal bones and/or scintigraphic examination of the carpi. Cause of lameness, breed, age, and work discipline were recorded. Increased opacity in the third carpal bone was graded, ratio of radiopharmaceutical uptake calculated objectively, and increased radiopharmaceutical uptake...
Daniel AJ, Judy CE, Rick MC, Saveraid TC, Herthel DJ.To describe pathological findings identified with MRI in the distal tarsal bones of horses with unilateral hind limb lameness attributable to tarsal pain and to compare the usefulness of MRI with that of radiography and nuclear scintigraphy in evaluation of this region. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 20 lame horses. Methods: In all horses, MRI, radiography (4 standard projections), and nuclear scintigraphy of the tarsus had been performed. Horses were excluded if the results of all 3 imaging modalities were not available or if lameness was detected in more than 1 limb. Pathologic...
Dymock DC, Pauwels FE.To describe key morphological attributes of the third metacarpal bone (Mc3) of horses and to determine whether or not the symmetry of the Mc3 varied significantly between limbs of the same horse. Methods: Ten pairs of metacarpi were collected from slaughter facilities. The age and breed of the horses were recorded. Fixed points and axes that could be easily reproduced between bones were identified on high-quality photographic images of each bone. Using image analysis, three angles were measured. Angle gamma measured the rotation around the long axis of the diaphysis of Mc3, angle delta the ang...
Dyson S, Blunden T, Murray R.There is limited knowledge about both histological features in early navicular disease and what histological features are represented by increased signal intensity in fat-suppressed magnetic resonance (MR) images of the navicular bone. Objective: To characterise increased signal intensity in the spongiosa of the navicular bone in fat-suppressed MR images and to compare this with histopathology; and to compare objective grading of all aspects of the navicular bone on MR images with histological findings. Methods: One or both front feet of 22 horses with foot pain and a median lameness duration ...
Dolan E, McGoldrick A, Davenport C, Kelleher G, Byrne B, Tormey W, Smith D, Warrington GD.Horse-racing jockeys are a group of weight-restricted athletes, who have been suggested as undertaking rapid and extreme weight cycling practices in order to comply with stipulated body-mass standards. The aim of this study was to examine bone mass, turnover and endocrine function in jockeys and to compare this group with age, gender and body mass index matched controls. Twenty male professional jockeys and 20 healthy male controls participated. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry scans and early morning fasting blood and urine samples were used to measure bone mass, turnover and a hormonal profi...
Kim W, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Firth EC, Broom ND.To describe and measure histologic features of midcarpal joint cartilage defects in Thoroughbreds and evaluate the influence of early conditioning exercise on defect development. Methods: 24 midcarpal joints from twelve 18-month-old Thoroughbreds. Methods: Midcarpal joints from 12 horses (6 exercised spontaneously at pasture only and 6 given additional conditioning exercise beginning at a mean age of 3 weeks were evaluated. Gross cartilage defects were assessed histologically. Third and radial carpal bones were categorized with regard to the presence or absence of calcified cartilage (CC) abno...
Nicholson CL, Firth EC, Waterland MR, Jones G, Ganesh S, Stewart RB.Although bone fracture has become a serious global health issue, current clinical assessments of fracture risk based on bone mineral density are unable to accurately predict whether an individual is likely to suffer a fracture. There is increasing recognition that the chemical structure and composition, or microstructure, of mineralized tissues has an important role to play in determining the fracture resistance of bone. The objective of this preliminary study was to evaluate the use of specular reflectance Fourier transform infrared (SR FT-IR) microspectroscopy in conjunction with discriminan...
Smith MA, Dyson SJ, Murray RC.To determine the reliability of 2 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems for detection of cartilage and bone lesions of the equine fetlock. Objective: To test the hypotheses that lesions in cartilage, subchondral and trabecular bone of the equine fetlock verified using histopathology can be detected on high- and low-field MR images with a low incidence of false positive or negative results; that low-field images are less reliable than high-field images for detection of cartilage lesions; and that combining results of interpretation from different pulse sequences increases detection of cartil...
Piskoty G, Jäggin S, Michel SA, Weisse B, Terrasi GP, Fürst A.There are no detailed studies describing the resistance of equine tibiae and radii to side impact loads, such as a horse kick and a better understanding of the general long bone impact behavioural model is required. Objective: To quantify the typical impact energy required to fracture or fissure an equine long bone, as well as to determine the range and time course of the impact force under conditions similar to that of a horse kick. Methods: Seventy-two equine tibiae and radii were investigated using a drop impact tester. The prepared bones were preloaded with an axial force of 2.5 kN and wer...
Seo JP, Tsuzuki N, Haneda S, Yamada K, Furuoka H, Tabata Y, Sasaki N.A three dimensional scaffold is essential in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) delivery in cell-based therapy for facilitating cell adherence, migration, proliferation, and differentiation. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the possibility of β-tricalcium phosphate incorporated gelatin sponges (Gelatin/β-TCP sponge) as scaffolds for equine MSCs and to examine the effects of seeding density and seeding method on the proliferation of equine MSCs in the Gelatin/β-TCP sponges. Mononuclear cells and MSCs isolated from bone marrow were seeded into Gelatin/β-TCP sponges at different densi...
Schumacher J, Schumacher J, Wilhite R.Clinical experiences indicate that centesis of the lateral compartment of the femorotibial joint is often unsuccessful. Objective: To determine the accuracy of 2 published and 2 unpublished techniques of centesis of the lateral compartment of the femorotibial joint. Objective: It was hypothesised that a drug can be administered into the lateral compartment of the femorotibial joint via a diverticulum of this joint that surrounds the medial aspect of the long digital extensor tendon and that this technique is more accurate than described techniques of centesis of this compartment. Methods: Twen...
Jacklin BD, Wright IM.Although fractures of the metacarpal and metatarsal condyles are the most common long-bone fractures of Thoroughbred horses in training, limited data on variations in morphology and incidence have been published. Additionally, grouped analyses of previous studies from the UK and USA would permit comparison between study groups and the creation of a substantial pool of international data. Methods: Retrospective analysis of case records of horses with fractures of the distal condyles of third metacarpal/metatarsal bones seen over the last 10 years at Newmarket Equine Hospital. The current series...
Bertoni L, Forresu D, Coudry V, Audigie F, Denoix JM.To characterize the clinical features, diagnostic procedures, treatment, and outcome for horses with an exostosis on the palmar or plantar cortex of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) or third metatarsal bone (MT3). Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 16 horses. Methods: Records from 2001 through 2010 were evaluated to identify horses with radiographic and ultrasonographic evidence of an exostosis on an MC3 or MT3. Signalment, history, lameness examination results, diagnostic imaging results, surgical and histopathologic findings, treatment, and outcome were evaluated. Results: 9 horses ...
Vaccaro C, Busetto R, Bernardini D, Anselmi C, Zotti A.To evaluate the precision and accuracy of assessing bone mineral density (BMD) by use of mean gray value (MGV) on digitalized and digital images of conventional and digital radiographs, respectively, of ex vivo bovine and equine bone specimens in relation to the gold-standard technique of dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). Methods: Left and right metatarsal bones from 11 beef cattle and right femurs from 2 horses. Methods: Bovine specimens were imaged by use of conventional radiography, whereas equine specimens were imaged by use of computed radiography (digital radiography). Each specim...
Cohen JM, Southwood LL, Engiles J, Leitch M, Nunamaker DM.To examine the efficacy and biocompatibility of a thiolated gelatin-thiolated carboxymethyl hyaluronan (CMHA-SGX) sponge as an osteoconductive device in an equine second and fourth metacarpal bone defect model. Methods: Seven millimetre segmental ostectomies were created bilaterally in the second and fourth metacarpal bones of four horses. The left and right metacarpal defects were randomly assigned to (1) be filled with a CMHA-SGX sponge (treated) or (2) were left unfilled (control). The duration of the study was nine weeks. Bone healing was evaluated using serial radiology, as well as histol...
McCormack J, Stover SM, Gibeling JC, Fyhrie DP.We recently developed a method to measure cortical bone fracture initiation toughness using a double-notched beam in four-point bending. This method was used to test the hypothesis that mineralization around the two notch roots is correlated with fracture toughness and crack extension (physical damage). Total energy absorbed to failure negatively correlated with average mineralization of the beam (r(2)=0.62), but not with notch root mineralization. Fracture initiation toughness was positively correlated to mineralization at the broken notch root (r(2)=0.34). Crack length extension at the unbro...
Manso-Díaz G, Taeymans O.A 14-year-old Quarter Horse had chronic facial swelling and a more recent history of progressive bilateral epiphora. Radiographic findings were compatible with exostosis of the nasofrontal suture. Computed tomography (CT) of the head, including CT dacryorhinocystography, confirmed the diagnosis and allowed presurgical planning of resection of the exostosis, which resulted in resolution of the clinical signs.
Gutierrez-Nibeyro S, Werpy N, White Ii N.Conventional imaging modalities can diagnose the source of foot pain in most cases, but have limitations in some horses, which can be overcome by using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, there are no reports of the MRI appearance and prevalence of foot lesions of a large series of horses with chronic foot lameness. Methods: In the present study, 79 horses with unilateral or bilateral forelimb lameness because of chronic foot pain underwent standing low-field MRI to make a definitive diagnosis. Results: Of the 79 horses, 74 (94%) had alterations in >1 structure in the lame or lamest foo...
Claerhoudt S, Bergman HJ, Van Der Veen H, Duchateau L, Raes EV, Saunders JH.Distal border synovial invaginations of the distal sesamoid bone are radiographically assessed during the selection process of horses admitted as breeding stallions or in purchase examinations. Nowadays, many moderately or some deeply penetrating proximally enlarged synovial invaginations are considered as moderate or severe radiographic findings. Objective: To measure the difference between and agreement of the morphology of distal border synovial invaginations on radiography vs. computed tomography (CT). It was hypothesised that the morphology of distal border synovial invaginations would be...
Walker WT, Silverberg JL, Kawcak CE, Nelson BB, Fortier LA.To determine morphological characteristics of subchondral bone cysts (SBCs) in medial femoral condyles (MFCs) of adult horses with orthopedic disease. Methods: CT scans of 7 MFCs with SBCs from 6 adult horses. Methods: CT was used to determine the volume, surface area, and centers of the articular cyst opening and SBC in each MFC. Cysts were ordered from smallest to largest on the basis of volume. Osseous pathological characteristics of the MFC were assessed in the frontal plane. Three-dimensional distance of displacement between the center of the articular cyst opening and center of the cyst ...
Vanderperren K, Saunders JH.The metacarpophangeal/metatarsophalangeal (fetlock) joint in the horse is commonly associated with equine lameness and diagnostic imaging is routinely used to investigate disorders of the joint and its surrounding tissues. This review describes the osseous disorders of the fetlock as well as the technical aspects of taking radiographic and ultrasonographic images of the different lesions. In current clinical practice, a combination of radiography and ultrasonography is still the most frequently used approach to arrive at a diagnosis.
Marsiglia MF, Yamada ALM, Agreste FR, de Sá LRM, Nieman RT, da Silva LCLC.Racehorses are exposed to repetitive overload during training and competition, causing joint hyperextension, tissue fatigue, and ultimately skeletal failure. Some degree of bone changes, such as sclerosis, are expected in equine athletes, as adaptation to the biomechanical rigors of training and racing. Understanding the imaging characteristics of the equine joint surface and subchondral bone would allow earlier detection of injuries or adaptation, improving prognosis and training programs. This study sought to describe the joint surface structural patterns and the periarticular structures of ...
Aldrich ED, Goodrich LR, Monahan MK, Conway JD, Valdés-Martínez A.Injury to the tendons and ligaments of the equine stifle is a common cause of lameness in horses. Individual radiographic localisation of each tendon and ligament of the stifle has not been previously reported or demonstrated in multiple radiographic projections. Objective: To create a series of radiographs identifying the origins and/or insertions of the tendons and ligaments of the equine stifle. Methods: Descriptive study of radiographic anatomy. Methods: The location of all entheses were determined by gross dissection. The proximal tibia and fibula, distal femur, patella and menisci were i...
Schmidburg I, Pagger H, Zsoldos RR, Mehnen J, Peham C, Licka TF.Laterolateral radiographs of equine necks are reported to be inaccurate in determining the site of spinal cord lesions even when a myelogram is carried out. The goal of this study was to assess constrictions present in the cervical vertebral canal at any time point throughout the extremes of movement. Sixteen equine cervical vertebral columns without history of cervical disease were used. After removal of the spinal cord, the dura mater was filled with polyurethane foam and during its plastic phase the cervical vertebral column was passively moved in flexion-extension, lateral bending and 30°...
Aldrich E, Nout-Lomas Y, Seim HB, Easley JT.To evaluate safety and efficacy of a novel technique for cervical stabilization. Methods: In vivo experimental. Methods: Four normal adult quarterhorse crossbreed horses (2-4 years of age, > 250 kg). Methods: One mid-cervical spinal unit (C3-C4) was distracted with a porous metal interbody fusion device (IFD) and stabilized with a polyaxial pedicle screw and rod construct. Neurologic examinations were performed preoperatively and postoperatively. Radiographs of the fusion site and adjoining vertebrae were obtained preoperatively and monthly. Horses were euthanized at 8 months and spin...
Findley JA, O'Neill HD, Bladon BM.A triangular screw configuration has been suggested as preferable for repair of sagittal fractures of the proximal phalanx. Objective: To assess the outcome of a triangular screw construct for repair of incomplete and complete minimally displaced proximal phalanx fractures under standing sedation in a population of Thoroughbred racehorses, compared with a cohort repaired using a linear screw configuration. Methods: Retrospective cohort study. Methods: Medical records and radiographs were accessed to garner clinical data. Date of return to racing was determined from www.racingpost.com. Survival...
Martel G, Couture CA, Gilbert G, Bancelin S, Richard H, Moser T, Kiss S, Légaré F, Laverty S.Osteochondrosis is an ischemic chondronecrosis of epiphyseal growth cartilage that results in focal failure of endochondral ossification and osteochondritis dissecans at specific sites in the epiphyses of humans and animals, including horses. The upstream events leading to the focal ischemia remain unknown. The epiphyseal growth cartilage matrix is composed of proteoglycan and collagen macromolecules and encases its vascular tree in canals. The matrix undergoes major dynamic changes in early life that could weaken it biomechanically and predispose it to focal trauma and vascular failure. Subre...
McCarthy RN, Jeffcott LB.Six Standardbred horses underwent a 14-week training programme on a treadmill. The training schedule consisted of five weeks of slow work of six to 12 km/day at 5 m/sec. This was followed by a nine week interval programme increasing in its intensity so that for the last three weeks the horses did three to four intervals/day from 600 to 1000 m at or above maximum heart rate. Ultrasound velocity through the third metacarpus showed a significant increase as a result of training. There was also a significant increase in modulus of elasticity, but no change in bone mineral content, bone mineral den...
Engiles JB, Stewart H, Janes J, Kennedy LA.As a pathologist, postmortem examination of the equine carpus can be daunting. The anatomy is complex and oftentimes, small or subtle lesions have significant impact on lameness and secondary lesions such as catastrophic musculoskeletal fractures and other injuries. In performance horses, particularly racehorses, the carpus is a common site of injury and source of lameness. Given the predisposition of racehorses to developing carpal disease, familiarity with clinically relevant anatomy and common developmental, degenerative, traumatic, and inflammatory processes are imperative for thorough pos...
Seghrouchni M, Bollo E, Piro M, Alyakine H, Bouayad H, Chakir J, Azrib R, Allali KE.This study aimed at describing anatomo-histopathological and imaging features, using computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging on six forelimbs of Tbourida horses, that presented a particular bone exostosis on the dorsal and proximal part of the first phalanx, diagnosed by X-ray. Gross anatomy of the bone exostosis revealed an irregular surface with poly-lobulated tissue masses showing a cauliflower shape. The diameter/depth varied from 0.5 to 5.1 cm with a mean of 3.9 ± 0.9 cm. The capsule of the metacarpophalangeal joint was hypertrophic and showed many invaginations in the inner ...
Björnsdóttir S, Arnason T, Lord P.A survival analysis was used to compare the culling rate of Icelandic horses due to the presence of radiographic and clinical signs of bone spavin. A follow-up study of 508 horses from a survey five years earlier was performed. In the original survey 46% of the horses had radiographic signs of bone spavin (RS) and/or lameness after flexion test of the tarsus. The horse owners were interviewed by telephone. The owners were asked if the horses were still used for riding and if not, they were regarded as culled. The owners were then asked when and why the horses were culled. During the 5 years, 9...
Didierlaurent D, Contremoulins V, Denoix JM, Audigié F.Lateral scintigraphic images of the necks of 12 show jumping horses, 12 thoroughbreds and 12 French trotters were evaluated. Custom-written automatic analysis software was used to segment the regions of the articular processes and vertebral symphyses from C3 to C7 and to calculate their mean radiopharmaceutical uptakes. The uptakes by the two sides of these sound horses were not significantly different, and the uptakes by the vertebral symphyses and articular processes were also similar in the three groups of horses, considering each vertebral level separately. In the thoroughbred race horses,...
Lillich JD, Bertone AL, Malemud CJ, Weisbrode SE, Ruggles AJ, Stevenson S.To compare the biochemical, histochemical, and immunohistochemical profiles of articular cartilage from horses with naturally acquired distal tibial osteochondrosis (OC) with cartilage from a similar location in clinically normal horses. Methods: 9 affected horses (group 1, 16 OC lesions) and 4 control horses (group 2, 8 normal osteochondral specimens). Methods: OC specimens were collected during arthroscopic removal of the fragment, and control specimens were collected by aseptic osteotomy. Uronic acid, total protein, total glycosaminoglycan (GAG), chondroitin sulfate (CS), and keratan sulfat...
Baker WR.Laminitis is typically classified into developmental or prodromal, acute, subacute, and chronic phases. Scientific evidence regarding the pathophysiology of laminitis does exist, but it is often conflicting and dependent on the clinician's interpretation/understanding of the study or the model used for inducing laminitis. The diagnosis of laminitis consists of obtaining an accurate history, performing a thorough physical examination, and taking good-quality radiographs. The use of radiographs for diagnosis and interpretation of laminitis is an absolute necessity for the clinician. Laminitis is...
Khumsap S, Lanovaz JL, Clayton HM.Techniques for 3D analysis have recently been developed. This study applied 3D kinematic analysis to describe the effects of lameness in the distal intertarsal (DIT) and tarsometatarsal (TMT) joints; complex joints such as this may show measurable amounts of movement outside the sagittal plane that may change in response to pathological conditions. Objective: Three-dimensional motions of the tarsal joint change after the induction of synovitis at the DIT and TMT joints. Methods: Twelve retroreflective markers, attached on the skin over the right limb, were used to develop 3D coordinate systems...
Ruohoniemi M, Laukkanen H, Ojala M, Kangasniemi A, Tulamo RM.The ossification of the collateral cartilages of the distal phalanx was evaluated in dorsopalmar radiographs of the front feet of 202 Finnhorses (101 females and 101 males, aged six months to 20 years) with reference to the sex, age, body measurements and type of horse. Ossification was more common and more extensive in females than in males from about two years of age. In females, the lateral cartilages were significantly more ossified than the medial cartilages; in males, ossification was more symmetrical in the cartilages of each foot. The amount of ossification increased rapidly during the...
Wallin-Håkansson N, Berggren K.To describe an adaptable method for reconstruction of the orbit following partial orbitectomy. Methods: One horse, one cat, and four dogs. Methods: Following partial orbitectomy for removal of bone and soft tissue affected by pathologic processes, reconstruction was achieved. Cerclage wires were used to reconstitute the orbital rim and other salient facial contours involved in excisions. These wires were then covered with a prolene mesh, first inside the orbit and then outwards over the affected extraorbital areas. Thereafter, a collagen sheet was placed over the mesh. Finally, subcutis and sk...
Rovel T, Coudry V, Denoix JM, Audigie F.CASE DESCRIPTION Over a 2-year period, 6 horses (4 Selle Français, 1 Hanoverian, and 1 Thoroughbred) were referred for evaluation of forelimb lameness. All horses had radiographic evidence of synostosis of the first and second ribs (SFSR). CLINICAL FINDINGS For 1 horse, the SFSR was considered the probable cause of the lameness (grade 3/5), with a shortening of the cranial phase of the stride in the affected limb. For 3 horses, it was considered a possible cause of the lameness (grade 1/5) for the same reason. For 2 horses, SFSR was considered an incidental finding unassociated with any clini...
Nagy A, Dyson S.Cadaver carpi of 30 mature horses with no history of carpal or proximal metacarpal pain were examined using low-field (0.27 T) and high-field (1.5 T) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Normal MRI anatomy in transverse, sagittal, and dorsal plane images was determined by comparison with anatomical specimens and standard texts. Subchondral bone and cortical bone thickness measurements were obtained from standardised sites. There was variable subchondral bone thickness in the radius and carpal bones; subchondral bone thickness was consistently larger at dorsal compared with palmar sites in the...
Husby KA, Reed SK, Wilson DA, Kuroki K, Middleton JR, Hoepp NC, Charles EM, Cook JL.To evaluate bone ingrowth, integration, and tolerance of a synthetic osteochondral implant in the medial femoral condyle (MFC) of normal horses. Methods: Experimental study. Methods: Adult horses (n = 6). Methods: Horses were anesthetized and bilateral femorotibial arthrotomies were performed for placement of 1 implant consisting of polycarbonate urethane with a titanium base in 1 MFC. The contralateral MFC served as a sham-operated control without reaming of cartilage or subchondral bone. Lameness evaluations and radiographs were performed pre-operatively with subsequent monthly lameness exam...
Perez JA, Weber KL, Bender SJ, Wulster KB, Parente EJ.To describe the use and outcome of sclerotherapy with intralesional doxycycline foam in a horse with a mandibular aneurysmal bone cyst. Methods: Case report. Methods: Client-owned 1 year old Standardbred filly. Methods: The horse presented for progressive mandibular swelling. A 10 mg/mL doxycycline foam was prepared for intralesional injection. Three doses were injected into the lesion under computed tomographic guidance at 6 and 15 weeks after initial treatment. Volume reduction was monitored after each treatment with 3D volumetric rendering and region of interest segmentation using commer...
Turlo AJ, Cywinska A, Frisbie DD.High prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders in racehorses and its impact on horse welfare and racing economics call for improved measures of injury diagnosis and prevention. Serum biomarkers of bone and cartilage metabolism have previously shown promise in prediction of musculoskeletal injuries in horses. This study aimed to re-evaluate usability of the predictive serum biomarkers identified in North American Thoroughbred racehorses in a geographically distinct group of Polish Thoroughbreds. Results: Serum concentrations of bone and cartilage biomarkers: osteocalcin, c-terminal telopeptide of...
Back W, van der Lugt JJ, Nikkels PG, van den Belt AJ, van der Kolk JH, Stout TA.An extreme form of abnormal development, dwarfism, is common in man and some animals, but has not been officially reported in horses. Within the Friesian horse breed, congenital dwarfism has been recognised for many years, but no detailed report exists on its phenotype. The most salient feature of the dwarf syndrome is the physeal growth retardation in both limbs and ribs. Affected animals have approximately 25% shorter fore- and hindlimbs and approximately 50% reduced bodyweight. Postnatal growth is still possible in these animals, albeit at a slower rate: the head and back grow faster than t...
MacGregor CM.Radiographic examination of the navicular bones of 258 horses was carried out. Of these 258 horses, 83 were sound (Group A), 151 had been diagnosed clinically as having navicular disease (Group B), and 24 had a forefoot lameness of unknown aetiology (Group C). Seven basic shapes of distal nutrient foramina were identified from these radiographs. A scoring system was then developed based on these different types of distal nutrient foramina. When this scoring system was applied to the radiographs of the 258 horses examined significant differences were found between the mean navicular scores of t...
Wilson WD, Hughes SJ, Ghoshal NG, McNeel SV.Occipitoatlantoaxial malformation was diagnosed in a 19-month-old mare of Appaloosa breeding and in a 3-year-old Quarter Horse gelding. Both horses had abnormal head and neck carriage since birth, but neurologic deficits did not become evident clinically until the horses reached 2 and 3 years of age, respectively. Palpation and manipulation of the base of the skull and cervical area proved to be useful diagnostically. Movement could not be elicited at the atlantooccipital joint but, in comparison with clinically normal horses, the range of dorsoventral motion at the atlantoaxial joint was incr...
Hopper BJ, Steel C, Richardson JL, Alexander GR, Robertson ID.Sclerosis of the third carpal bone is a common radiographic finding in both lame and sound racehorses, but there are no guidelines correlating degree of sclerosis and incidence of lameness. Objective: To develop a protocol for describing subchondral bone sclerosis in C3 on dorsoproximal-dorsodistal oblique (DPr-DDiO) radiographs of the carpus and to correlate these changes with exercise history and carpal lameness. Methods: One hundred and six Standardbreds entering their first year of training (exercise group) and 7 age-matched Standardbreds at pasture (controls) were examined at approximatel...
Spriet M.Positron emission tomography (PET) has established itself as a pertinent tool in equine musculoskeletal imaging in the last few years. With the ability to provide functional information regarding both bone and soft tissues, PET has found several clinical applications in horses. PET is currently used in horses as an enhanced bone scan, providing high-resolution 3-dimensional information, in particular for imaging of the racehorse fetlock. Combined with CT and MRI, PET is particularly pertinent in horses for the assessment of subchondral bone and enthesis. The development of a dedicated PET scan...
Noordwijk KJ, Chen L, Ruspi BD, Schurer S, Papa B, Fasanello DC, McDonough SP, Palmer SE, Porter IR, Basran PS, Donnelly E, Reesink HL.Proximal sesamoid bone (PSB) fracture is the leading cause of fatal musculoskeletal injury in Thoroughbred racehorses in Hong Kong and the US. Efforts are underway to investigate diagnostic modalities that could help identify racehorses at increased risk of fracture; however, features associated with PSB fracture risk are still poorly understood. The objectives of this study were to (1) investigate third metacarpal (MC3) and PSB density and mineral content using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), computed tomography (CT), Raman spectroscopy, and ash fraction measurements, and (2) investig...
Djernaes JD, Nielsen JV, Berg LC.The widths of spaces between the thoracolumbar processi spinosi (interspinous spaces) are frequently assessed using radiography in sports horses; however effects of varying X-ray beam angles and geometric distortion have not been previously described. The aim of this prospective, observational study was to determine whether X-ray beam angle has an effect on apparent widths of interspinous spaces. Thoracolumbar spine specimens were collected from six equine cadavers and left-right lateral radiographs and sagittal and dorsal reconstructed computed tomographic (CT) images were acquired. Sequentia...
