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Topic:Bones
The skeletal system in horses comprises a complex structure of bones that provide support, protection, and mobility. Equine bones are involved in various physiological functions, including mineral storage and hematopoiesis. The bone structure in horses is categorized into different types, such as long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones, each serving specific roles in movement and stability. Research in this area explores topics such as bone development, remodeling, and the impact of nutrition and exercise on bone health. This page gathers peer-reviewed studies and academic articles that focus on the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of bones in horses, offering insights into conditions such as fractures, bone diseases, and the effects of aging on the equine skeletal system.
Osteosynthesis of bilateral, displaced incisive bone fracture in a horse. A nine-year-old Trakehner mare was presented three days after an episode of severe epistaxis, showing intermittent foul-smelling nasal discharge with feed material and rostral displacement of the upper incisor teeth. Radiographic and computed tomography examinations revealed a complete comminuted fracture of the right side and an oblique complete fracture of the left side nasal processes of the incisive bone and maxillary bone, as well as open fractures of the nasal septum and palatine bone with displacement of the incisor part rostrally and development of an oronasal communication. The fractu...
Serum Osteocalcin and CTX-I in Fit-to-Race Thoroughbred Racehorses: Reference Intervals and Associations with Demographic, Training, and Lameness-Related Factors. Musculoskeletal injury remains a major welfare and performance concern in Thoroughbred racing, and biomarkers for early risk stratification are of scientific interest. This multicentre observational cohort study characterised serum concentrations of two bone turnover markers, osteocalcin/BGLAP (OC) and C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX-I), in 1359 fit-to-race Thoroughbred racehorses sampled across New South Wales, Victoria, and Western Australia. Biomarker distributions, population-wide percentile ranges, demographic and training-related associations, and short-term soundness outc...
Core decompression augmented with bone marrow aspirate concentrate for refractory distal sesamoid bone pathology in horses: A retrospective clinical study. To determine short- and long-term outcomes of core decompression combined with autologous bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC) in treating moderate-to-severe refractory distal sesamoid bone (DSB) trabecular pathology in horses. Methods: Retrospective observational study. Methods: A total of 21 client-owned Warmblood horses with DSB pathology unresponsive to conservative management. Methods: Preoperative diagnosis included lameness localization by diagnostic analgesia and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) confirmation of DSB trabecular pathology. Horses underwent arthroscopic core decompressi...
A postmortem grading system for articular cartilage loss of the dorsoproximal aspect of the proximal phalanx of Thoroughbred racehorses. The metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints in Thoroughbred racehorses are common injury sites, given their high range of motion and compression during galloping. In New Zealand, the proximal phalanx (P1) is a common site for race-day fracture, but the lesions of this bone have not been described. Therefore, we created a scoring system to describe cartilage on the dorsoproximal aspect of P1 in New Zealand Thoroughbred racehorses. We collected 102 P1s from racehorses submitted for postmortem examination. Horses were categorized into 2 cohorts: 1) fracture (18 horses euthanized becaus...
Equine nuclear medicine: Current state of play. Equine nuclear medicine provides functional information on bone turnover, perfusion, inflammation and tracer biodistribution. Its role has evolved from planar scintigraphy toward SPECT, PET and quantitative imaging. This review synthesised the historical foundations and contemporary state of equine nuclear medicine, with emphasis on racehorse and performance-horse applications. Methods: A PRISMA-aligned systematic narrative review and evidence map were undertaken. MEDLINE via PubMed, Web of Science Core Collection and SciQuest were searched, supplemented by reference-list screening, forward ci...
Anatomical Insights Into the Equine Cervical Intervertebral Foramina: Implications for Veterinary Practice. The equine cervical intervertebral foramina (IVF) represent vital anatomical regions facilitating the passage of spinal nerves and associated vasculature. An in-depth understanding of their anatomy is imperative for the safe implementation of diagnostic and surgical interventions. Despite their clinical significance, anatomical descriptions of the equine cervical IVF remain under-characterised in the existing literature, particularly in relation to the needs of equine veterinary surgeons. Our study provides comprehensive anatomical analysis of the IVF at the cervical vertebral levels C5/C6 and...
Equine upper limb kinematics: Comparison between biplanar high-speed fluoroscopic kinematography and optoelectronic motion capture in one Mini Shetland Pony. There are no studies describing the kinematics of the proximal limb skeleton in living equids. In horses like in all other therian mammals studied so far, the scapula rotates around an instantaneous center of rotation rather than a fixed pivot point, which increases the susceptibility of skin marker-based methods to inaccuracies. Objective: The aim of the study was to describe the skeletal movement of the proximal equine limb and to overcome limitations traditionally associated with skin marker displacement errors. Methods: Optoelectronic motion capture (OMC) and biplanar high-speed fluoroscop...
Correlation of Positron Emission Tomography and Low-Field Standing Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Horses With Forelimb Lameness Localized to the Foot. Low-field magnetic resonance imaging (LF-MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging can be obtained in the standing horse. There is potential for increased diagnostic capacity combining PET with MRI, given that PET assesses the metabolic activity of injured tissues, whereas MRI provides structural and functional details on both bone and soft tissue anatomy. This study aimed to describe 18-fluorine-fluorodeoxyglucose (F-FDG)-PET and 18-sodium fluoride (F-NaF)-PET imaging of horses with forelimb lameness localized to the foot and compare PET with LF-MRI. Fourteen horses with lameness lo...
Genes Associated With Fracture Risk in Thoroughbred Horses Have Novel Roles in Osteogenesis. Bone fractures in Thoroughbred racehorses are a major welfare problem. Genetic factors contribute to fracture risk. Cell models have previously identified 112 differentially expressed genes in bone-forming osteoblasts derived from horses at high and low genetic risk of fracture. However, 42 of these genes have no published role in bone. In this study, we identified novel roles for a subset of these genes in bone formation. Twenty-six of the 42 genes were expressed in Saos2 cells during basal culture and/or after 21 days of osteogenic culture. Five of these genes (ADSSL1, CABP1, ENO2, SPARCL1...
Computed tomography long-term follow-up of a facial fracture involving the orbit and paranasal sinus. Fractures of the facial bones involving the orbit are challenging conditions that require surgical treatment. Objective: To describe preoperative and postoperative clinical and computed tomographic findings of an orbital rim fracture repaired using a reconstruction plate. Methods: Case report. Methods: A 14-year-old Haflinger mare was presented with an open, depressed and comminuted fracture involving the frontal, nasal, lacrimal and maxillary bone, sinus system and the medial aspect of the orbital rim and wall on the right side, as diagnosed by CT. Fracture repair included orbital rim reconst...
Circulating Elements in the Bloodstream of Growing Foals: Focus on Heavy Metals and Bone Remodeling Across Growth Stages. Bone tissue undergoes continuous remodelling throughout the life of the individual, and growth is the most impacting phase. In fact, tightly coordinated processes of resorption, synthesis, and mineralization of the bone matrix under systemic hormonal, biomechanical, and metabolic control occur for variable periods of time across species. The horse is a fast-growing animal and for this reason identified as precocial. It was hypothesized that blood serum levels of minerals in growing foals at different stages of accretion may vary over time. This investigation aimed to assess the dynamics of cir...
Gross and Histopathologic Comparison of the Distal Third Metacarpal Bone and the Proximal First Phalanx with Sodium Fluoride Positron Emission Tomography Radiopharmaceutical Uptake in Five Horses. Injuries of the metacarpophalangeal joint are a major cause of morbidity and catastrophic fracture in racing horses, yet early osseous pathology is often difficult to detect using conventional imaging. This pilot study aimed to correlate sodium fluoride Positron Emission Tomography (F-NaF PET) radiopharmaceutical uptake with gross and histopathologic changes in the distal third metacarpal bone (MC3) and proximal first phalanx (P1). Five horses (three racing Thoroughbreds with fetlock injury and two non-racing controls) underwent ante-mortem F-NaF PET and cone-beam CT imaging (CBCT), followed b...
A Case of Separate os tarsale primum in a Horse. Anatomical variation in the equine tarsus may involve either fusion of the with the or the presence of a separate . The distal row of tarsal bones is therefore of particular anatomical interest, as an independent first tarsal bone has been only sporadically documented in previous studies. In this study, twelve equine tarsal joints were examined using macroscopic and radiographic methods. In eleven specimens, six tarsal bones were identified, whereas in one specimen (1/12, 8.3%), seven tarsal bones were observed due to the presence of an independent with an irregular cuboid shape. Radiograph...
Vital bone and increased osteoid in equine osteochondrosis dissecans of the proximal phalanx: A controlled study indicating a mineralization deficit rather than vascular failure. Osteochondrosis and osteochondrosis dissecans (OCD) are among the most common orthopaedic disorders in young horses. Although traditionally explained by vascular failure and ischaemic necrosis, recent findings in human juvenile OCD suggest that impaired bone mineralization may play an important role. Horses are known to have relatively low circulating vitamin D metabolites, raising the question of whether insufficient mineralization contributes to equine OCD. This study investigated the bone vitality and mineralization status of osteochondrosis dissecans fragments (OCDFs) collected from the do...
Impact of ununited plantar eminence of the first phalanx on early racing performance in North American Standardbreds. To determine the prevalence of ununited plantar eminence (UPE) of the first phalanx (P1) in North American Standardbreds and evaluate its association with early racing performance. Methods: Retrospective cohort study with matched sibling controls. Methods: Imaging records from 1897 yearling Standardbred horses. Methods: Screening images were reviewed for the presence of UPE and other orthopedic abnormalities. Sex, age, sire, gait, and racing performance data were obtained from the United States Trotting Association. Affected horses were compared with unaffected siblings using non-parametric te...
Validation of measurable radiographic parameters for quantitative assessment of carpal and metacarpal bone morphology in foals. Radiographic morphometry provides a quantitative means to evaluate bone conformation in horses, yet validation of these parameters in foals has not previously been undertaken. This study aimed to determine the intra- and inter-rater repeatability and reproducibility of established carpal and third metacarpal (MC3) radiographic parameters in Thoroughbred foals and to establish baseline conformational data. Twenty Thoroughbred foals were radiographed without sedation from birth to 14 months of age at two-month intervals. Dorsopalmar carpal and lateromedial MC3 radiographs were obtained using sta...
Accuracy of Computed Tomography in Diagnosing Temporomandibular Joint Osteoarthritis Relative to Histopathological Findings-An Ex Vivo Study of 41 Horses. Computed tomography (CT) is used to support the diagnosis of equine temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disease; however, its diagnostic accuracy remains unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between CT findings and histopathological manifestations of osteoarthritis (OA) in equine TMJs. A total of 82 TMJs were CT-imaged, sampled, grouped into age-related and OA-related groups, and analyzed for frequency distributions, correlations, and CT-based TMJ OA diagnosis. CT findings were observed in 79% of joints, including 'CT anatomical variations' considering to reflect age-related remode...
Comparison of Two Different Finite Element Modeling Pipelines for Virtual Mechanical Testing of The Distal Third Metacarpal Bone In Thoroughbred Racehorses. Condylar stress fracture of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) in Thoroughbred racehorses is a common catastrophic injury and identification of horses at heightened risk remains subjective. Standing computed tomography (sCT) is a practical screening tool that enables patient-specific finite element analysis (FEA) of the distal MC3 and prediction of subchondral bone strain, as a potential objective classifier of racehorses at heightened risk. The goal of this study was to compare two independently developed sCT-based subject-specific FEA pipelines for virtual mechanical testing of the distal MC3. ...
The Effects of Boron Mineral on Performance, Bone and Mineral Metabolism in Purebred Arabian Foals. Boron plays significant roles in various biological systems, including mineral, lipid, and energy metabolism, immune and endocrine systems, and brain function. It has been suggested to enhance performance and may prevent conditions such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and arthritis. Despite these known benefits, its effects on growth performance and mineral metabolism in horses remain understudied, particularly in young animals like Purebred Arabian foals. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the effects of different doses of boron supplementation (0, 5, 10, and 15 mg/day ...
Germline Pathogenic Variant in the APC Gene Suggestive of Gardner Syndrome in a Pony. A 12-year-old pony mare was presented for evaluation of dental disease and nasal discharge. At presentation, clinical signs included bilateral nasal discharge, cutaneous masses, and numerous hard enlargements involving the bones of the skull, maxilla, mandible, and cervical vertebrae. Oral exam revealed advanced dental disease with hard enlargements adjacent to and between numerous cheek teeth. Radiographs and computed tomography confirmed the presence of severe dental disease and proliferative bone lesions disseminated along the skull, hyoid apparatus, and cranial cervical vertebrae. The bony...
Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in a Roman-period horse from Gerulata (Bratislava-Rusovce, Slovakia): Diagnostic Considerations. To evaluate pathological changes identified in a skeleton of a horse from Roman-period Gerulata, Slovakia. Methods: The remains consist of a partially preserved, articulated skeleton of an adult horse from today's southern urban district of Bratislava-Rusovce in southwestern Slovakia. Methods: The specimen underwent macroscopic analysis to assess taxonomic identification, biological profile, and pathological changes. Thoracolumbar lesions were further evaluated using computed tomography (CT). Radiocarbon dating determined the absolute age of the remains. Results: Species determination indicate...
Evidence of occipitoatlantoaxial malformations independent of the HOXD3 mutation in an Arabian horse. Occipitoatlantoaxial malformations (OAAM) are developmental disorders occurring at the occiput, atlas and axis. OAAM type 1 is a familial disorder affecting Arabian horses. Currently, a single genetic mutation in the HOXD3 gene region can be tested to confirm the diagnosis. This case describes a 3-year-old Arabian gelding affected with OAAM. Clinical examination revealed a proximal cervical deformation on the right side and severe stiffness of the neck in the sagittal plane without associated pain. Neurological examination demonstrated a generalized proprioceptive ataxia. Radiographs revealed ...
Longitudinal associations between dorsal carpal and third metacarpal bone morphology in Thoroughbred foals during growth. The carpal and third metacarpal (MC3) bones of the equine forelimb undergo morphological adaptation during early growth, influenced by developmental and mechanical factors. However, the longitudinal interactions between dorsal carpal morphology and MC3 structural characteristics have not been fully characterized. Improved understanding of these relationships may help identify morphological indicators associated with bone injury risk before training. Objective: To examine the longitudinal associations between dorsal carpal angular morphology and MC3 diaphyseal parameters in growing Thoroughbred...
Objective, Longitudinal Computed Tomographic Evaluation of the Metacarpal Condyles in Non-Lame Thoroughbred Racehorses. There are limited data on sequential computed tomographic (CT) evaluation and objective CT assessment of the metacarpal condyles in Thoroughbred racehorses. This longitudinal study aimed to document changes in attenuation of the metacarpal condyles during the first two years of training and racing. Fan-beam CT examination of the metacarpophalangeal regions was performed on 40 non-lame Thoroughbred yearlings, and repeated four more times, approximately six months apart. Mean Hounsfield Unit (HU) measurements were obtained on sagittal reconstructions of the dorsal and palmar halves of the medial...
Clinical and research applications of synthetic bone substitutes in equine veterinary medicine: A systematic review. Bone grafting in equine medicine offers a promising contribution to treating orthopaedic developmental diseases and chondral, osteochondral and segmental bone defects. Among grafts, synthetic bone substitutes-alloplastics-show favourable biological properties addressing numerous limitations presented by autografts, xenografts and allografts. Objective: To compile and disseminate clinical data and research findings from existing publications on the use of alloplastics in horses. Methods: Systematic review. Methods: Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis 202...
Markers of bone turnover, parathyroid hormone, calcium, and magnesium concentrations in horses with acute colitis. Hypocalcemia is frequent in horses with colitis. Information on serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) concentrations and its association with bone turnover biomarkers in horses with colitis is lacking. We aimed to determine the association between serum bone resorption biomarkers (C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen [CTX-I]) and bone formation (osteocalcin [OCN]) with blood PTH, total calcium (tCa), ionized calcium (iCa), phosphorus (Pi), and total magnesium (tMg) concentrations, and mortality in horses with acute colitis. A total of 163 horses were divided into colitis (n = 127) and healt...
Radiographic findings of candidate stallions presented for licensing at all German Warmblood horse-breeding associations in 2018-2020. Current studies on the health status of young German Warmblood stallions are lacking. Objective: To evaluate the prevalence of radiographic findings at licensing examinations of Warmblood candidate stallions and quantify the environmental influences on the distribution of recorded findings. Methods: In this retrospective observational study, records of 1693 radiographic examinations performed on 1678 German Warmblood stallions presented for licensing in 2018-2020 were reviewed. Data were provided by all German Warmblood horse-breeding associations and their official veterinarians. The collecti...
The majority of proximal sesamoid and condylar fractures occurred in horses identified as high risk by inertial measurement unit sensors. To determine whether targeted lesion-specific algorithms developed from data collected with accelerometer-based inertial measurement units worn by racing Thoroughbreds could retrospectively identify horses at high risk of incurring forelimb condylar or proximal sesamoid fractures. Unassigned: Fracture-specific algorithms were generated from July 2021 to December 2024 with accelerometer data from 42,623 races by 15,755 horses, including 54 races by 23 horses that subsequently suffered condylar fractures and 90 races by 31 horses that later sustained proximal sesamoid fractures. Fracture-specifi...
Bridging Species with AI: A Cross-Species Deep Learning Model for Fracture Detection and Beyond. Fractures are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Thoroughbred racehorses, posing a significant threat to their welfare and careers. This study introduces a deep learning model specifically designed to facilitate fracture detection in equine athletes. By leveraging extensive training on human fracture data and refining the model with equine imaging, it highlights the transformative potential of transfer learning across species and medical contexts. This approach is not limited to equine fractures but could be adapted for use in detecting injuries or conditions in other veterinary spe...
