Topic:Chloride
Chloride is an essential electrolyte in horses, involved in maintaining acid-base balance, osmotic pressure, and electrical neutrality in bodily fluids. It is primarily found in extracellular fluid and is a component of gastric secretions, playing a role in digestion. Chloride levels can be influenced by dietary intake, hydration status, and various physiological processes. Abnormal chloride concentrations may indicate underlying health issues such as dehydration, metabolic disorders, or renal dysfunction. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the function, regulation, and clinical implications of chloride in equine physiology and health management.
Gross, organoleptic and histologic assessment of cadaveric equine heads preserved using chemical methods for veterinary surgical teaching. Preservation of biological tissues has been used since ancient times. Regardless of the method employed, tissue preservation is thought to be a vital step in veterinary surgery teaching and learning. Objective: This study was designed to determine the usability of chemically preserved cadaveric equine heads for surgical teaching in veterinary medicine. Methods: Six cadaveric equine heads were collected immediately after death or euthanasia and frozen until fixation. Fixation was achieved by using a hypertonic solution consisting of sodium chloride, sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate, and an alc...
Determination of sweetener specificity of horse gut-expressed sweet taste receptor T1R2-T1R3 and its significance for energy provision and hydration. Studies carried out in several species have demonstrated that detection of low-calorie sweeteners in the lumen of the intestine, by the sweet receptor, T1R2-T1R3, initiates a signaling pathway leading to enhanced expression and activity of intestinal Na/glucose cotransporter 1, SGLT1. This results in an increased gut capacity to absorb glucose, sodium chloride and water, the basis for oral rehydration therapy. Horses express T1R2, T1R3 and downstream signaling elements in the intestinal tissue. As such, the potential of sweetener-stimulation of T1R2-T1R3 leading to upregulation of SGLT1 allows...
Arterial Blood Gas, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Values as Diagnostic and Prognostic Indicators in Equine Colic. The study aimed to investigate if arterial blood analysis in conscious horses presenting with signs of colic and breathing ambient air had diagnostic or prognostic value. Arterial blood samples from 352 horses presenting with colic at a university equine referral hospital were analysed for pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2), partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2), concentrations of sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), ionised calcium (Ca2+) and chloride (Cl-), actual and standardised plasma bicarbonate concentration (HCO3- (P) and HCO3- (P, st)), blood and extracellular fluid base excess (Base...
The effects of feeding sodium chloride pellets on the gastric mucosa, acid-base, and mineral status in exercising horses. Electrolyte supplementation may be a risk factor for gastric mucosal lesions, but relevant evidence is limited in horses. Objective: Investigate the effects of PO sodium chloride (NaCl) supplementation on the gastric mucosa of exercising horses. We hypothesized that NaCl supplementation would neither cause nor exacerbate existing gastric mucosal damage. Methods: Fifteen 3-year-old healthy Warmblood stallions from a stud farm. Methods: Placebo-controlled study with a crossover design. Horses were fed either a NaCl pellet at a dosage adequate to replace the electrolyte losses in 10 L sweat or ...
Hydroelectrolytic and Acid-Base Parameters after 80 to 115 km Endurance Races (Raid Uruguayo) and Their Association with the Comfort Index. The Raid Uruguayo (RAID) is an equestrian endurance competition. This study characterized the hydroelectrolytic parameters (Na, K, Cl, tCa, and iCa), hematocrit (Ht), total plasma protein (TPP), and blood pH from 900 equine athletes (finishers and non-finishers) competing over distances of 80 to 115 km under different climate conditions. Paired blood samples were taken prior to the start of the competition (sample 1) and at the end of the race or at the time of leaving the competition (sample 2). The association of the comfort index (CI: low, moderate, and high) with blood parameters was evalu...
Measuring Biochemical Variables and Serum Amyloid A (SAA) in Working Mules in Central Italy. According to FAO reports, the global mule population counts about 9 million mules. This hybrid cross of a male donkey and a female horse is mainly used for draft purposes because they are thought to be strong and hardy animals. Most consider mules to be less susceptible to disease and fatigue compared to horses. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of fieldwork on biochemical variables and serum amyloid A in working mules. Blood samples were collected from 10 healthy, female, working mules before and after 8 h of fieldwork. According to statistical analysis, a signif...
Effects of total parenteral nutrition associated with glutamine, enteral fluid therapy with or without glutamine, and fluid therapy on the acid-base and electrolyte balance of horses starved after exploratory laparotomy. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of the total parenteral nutrition associated with glutamine, enteral fluid therapy with or without glutamine, and fluid therapy on the acid-base and electrolyte balance of horses starved after exploratory laparotomy. Sixteen healthy male and female adult horses of mixed breed, aged between 4 and 14 years, and having a mean body weight of 248.40 ± 2.28 kg and a body score index of 3-4 (scale of 1-5) were divided into four groups with four animals per group. After an adaptation period of 30 days, they were randomly divided into four experimental groups: ...
Effects of intravenous magnesium sulfate on serum calcium-regulating hormones and plasma and urinary electrolytes in healthy horses. Intravenous magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) is used in equine practice to treat hypomagnesemia, dysrhythmias, neurological disorders, and calcium dysregulation. MgSO4 is also used as a calming agent in equestrian events. Hypercalcemia affects calcium-regulating hormones, as well as plasma and urinary electrolytes; however, the effect of hypermagnesemia on these variables is unknown. The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of hypermagnesemia on blood parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin (CT), ionized calcium (Ca2+), ionized magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-) ...
Effect of Aerosolised Salbutamol Administration on Arterial Potassium Concentration in Anaesthetised Horses. Aerosolized salbutamol has been associated with hypokalemia in horses undergoing colic surgery. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of aerosolized salbutamol on arterial potassium concentration ([K +]) in healthy anaesthetized horses undergoing elective surgery. Anesthetic records were reviewed from healthy adult horses undergoing elective surgery over a 3-year period with two complete sets of arterial electrolyte (sodium [Na +], potassium [K +], chloride [Cl -], calcium [Ca 2+]) concentration measurements. Records were excluded if intra-operative electrolyte supplementation...
Administration of pilocarpine by microneedle patch as a novel method for cystic fibrosis sweat testing. The sweat test is the gold standard for the diagnosis of cystic fibrosis (CF). The test utilizes iontophoresis to administer pilocarpine to the skin to induce sweating for measurement of chloride concentration in sweat. However, the sweat test procedure needs to be conducted in an accredited lab with dedicated instrumentation, and it can lead to inadequate sweat samples being collected in newborn babies and young children due to variable sweat production with pilocarpine iontophoresis. We tested the feasibility of using microneedle (MN) patches as an alternative to iontophoresis to administer ...
Determination of reference intervals for equine arterial blood-gas, acid-base and electrolyte analysis. To establish reference intervals for arterial blood-gas (ABG), acid-base and electrolyte values from a healthy equine population. Methods: Retrospective clinical study. Methods: A total of 139 client-owned, systemically healthy horses, 1 year of age and older, presented for elective surgical procedures. Methods: Blood samples were collected anaerobically from the transverse facial or common carotid artery of horses breathing room air, prior to administration of preanaesthetic medication. Samples were analysed immediately, without correction for body temperature, using an automated bench-top an...
Changes in the SIDActual and SID Effective Values in the Course of Respiratory Acidosis in Horses With Symptomatic Severe Equine Asthma-An Experimental Study. Equine asthma syndrome is an allergic, inflammatory airway disease that usually affects older horses. Respiratory acidosis is an acid-base imbalance caused by alveolar hypoventilation. The acid-base balance may be assessed using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation as well as the Stewart model. The authors hypothesized that systemic respiratory acidosis changes the ionic concentrations affecting water dissociation. The study group included 16 Warmblood, mixed breed horses of both sexes with a history of severe equine asthma, and 10 healthy horses were used as controls. Arterial and venous blood ...
Validity of an established metabolic disorder index as a predictor for metabolic eliminations in endurance horses. Endurance horses are usually eliminated from the race due to lameness, metabolic ailments or technical reasons. The purpose of the study was to determine the validity and reliability of the metabolic disorder index (MDI) in predicting metabolic eliminations in endurance horses during an endurance race. Fifty-four endurance horses competing on two local endurance tracks were involved in the study. Blood samples were collected a day prior to the event to determine packed cell volume (PCV), chloride (Cl), interleukin-6 (IL-6), creatine kinase (CK) and glutathione reductase (GR) concentrations fro...
Comparison of Enterprise Point-of-Care and Nova Biomedical Critical Care Xpress analyzers for determination of arterial pH, blood gas, and electrolyte values in canine and equine blood. Point-of-care analyzers can provide a rapid turnaround time for critical blood test results. Agreement between the Enterprise Point-of-Care (EPOC) and bench-top laboratory analyzers is important to determine the clinical reliability of the EPOC. Objective: The aim of the study was (1) to evaluate the precision (repeatability) of blood gas values measured by the EPOC and (2) to determine the level of agreement between the EPOC and Nova Critical Care Express (Nova CCX) for the assessment of arterial pH, blood gases, and electrolyte variables in canine and equine blood. Methods: Arterial blood sa...
Comparison of equine platelet function and survival in whole blood collected in acid-citrate-dextrose solution or citrate-phosphate-dextrose-adenine solution. Equine whole blood collection and storage methods have been evaluated to assess red blood cell viability; however, platelet (PLT) viability has not been comprehensively assessed. Objective: The purpose of the study was to compare viability of PLTs collected in whole blood into 2 different anticoagulants. Methods: Whole blood from 6 healthy adult Thoroughbred horses was collected into citrate-phosphate-dextrose-adenine (CPDA) or acid-citrate-dextrose (ACD). Platelet count, pH, and concentrations of glucose, lactate, carbon dioxide, oxygen, bicarbonate, sodium, potassium, and chloride were measu...
Changes in blood pressure, heart rate, and blood profile in mares during the last 3 months of gestation and the peripartum period. In this study, peripartum changes in complete blood count, plasma electrolyte concentrations, blood pressure, heart rate, and heart rate variability (HRV) were determined in pregnant Warmblood mares (n = 10). Blood was collected from Days 245 to 330 of gestation (phase A), 2Days 3 to 1 before foaling (phase B), repeatedly within 12 hours after foaling (phase C), and on Days 1 to 3 postpartum (phase D). On the same days as blood collection, blood pressure and cardiac beat-to-beat intervals were measured and time domain HRV variables were calculated. Blood pressure decreased during the past 3...
Simplified strong ion difference approach to acid-base balance in healthy foals. To determine the strong ion difference (SIDa ) and total nonvolatile weak buffers (ATOT ) in healthy foals during the first year of life and to compare reference biochemistry laboratory with analyzers available during emergency hours. Methods: Prospective study performed over 2 years. Methods: University teaching hospital. Methods: Two hundred thirty-six healthy foals distributed in 6 groups: A (21 days-2 months), B (2-3 months), C (3-6 months), D (6-9 months), E (9-12 months), and 33 neonatal foals (< 21 days old). Methods: Blood samples were obtained to determine L-lactate, sodium, potass...
Equine total carbon dioxide testing in Illinois in 2012. During prolonged strenuous exercise, racehorses can experience acidemia. To counteract this phenomenon, trainers can administer blood alkalizing agents that raise the plasma pH and total carbon dioxide (TCO2) concentration. In Illinois, the administrative threshold for TCO2 in plasma is 37.0 mmol/L. Because accuracy in the reported measurement of TCO2 must be ensured, uncertainty measurements are often issued alongside the reported concentrations. We report a validated method for measuring TCO2 levels in equine plasma using the Beckman UniCel DxC 600. A six-point calibration curve ranging from...
Blood glucose, acid-base and electrolyte changes during loading doses of alpha₂-adrenergic agonists followed by constant rate infusions in horses. The aim of the present study was to investigate changes in blood glucose concentration ([Glu]B), acid-base status and electrolyte concentrations during constant rate infusions (CRI) of two alpha2-adrenergic agonists in seven horses treated in a blinded, randomised, crossover design with xylazine or romifidine. An intravenous (IV) bolus of xylazine (1mg/kg) or romifidine (80 μg/kg) was administered followed by an IV CRI of xylazine (0.69 mg/kg/h) or romifidine (30 μg/kg/h) for 2h. Blood samples were collected from the pulmonary artery before and after loading doses, during the CRI, and for 1h...
Fresh and preserved green fodder modify effects of urinary acidifiers on urine pH of horses. Hay stabilises urine pH in horses. It is unknown whether this is an effect of structure or of chemical composition. In this study, four ponies (230-384 kg body weight [BW]) were fed six different diets with either a structure or a composition similar to hay with and without acidifiers in a cross-over experimental design in amounts to maintain body weight with the following main compounds: Fresh grass (GRASS), alfalfa hay (ALF), grass cobs (COBS), grass silage (SIL), straw (STR) or extruded straw (STRe) for 2 to 10 days. Urine pH was measured in all trials, blood pH, blood base excess and bicar...
Effects of leukotriene C4 on the bioelectric properties and ion transport of equine tracheal epithelium. To determine effects of leukotriene (LT) C(4) on ion transport across equine tracheal epithelium. Sample-Tracheal epithelium from cadavers of 24 horses considered free of respiratory tract disease. Methods: Mucosae were mounted into Ussing chambers, and short-circuit current (I(sc)) was monitored over time. Effects of LTC(4) were examined for various conditions, including addition of amiloride (10μM) to the mucosal bath solution, addition of bumetanide (10μM) to the serosal bath solution, addition of barium (1mM) to the serosal bath solution, and substitution of gluconate for chloride and HE...
A survey on the feeding of eventing horses during competition. This study aims at the comparison of the actual feeding of horses with the recommendations from the literature, and it studies the effects of feeding and exercise on several blood metabolic parameters before and after exercise. Blood samples were collected from 25 horses during one-star eventing competitions and evaluated for blood glucose, insulin, lactate, free fatty acids and triglyceride levels. Questionnaires on the feeding practices of the horses were evaluated. The questionnaires revealed that during training, and on tournament days, horses received on average 4.3 kg of concentrate per ...
A comparison of hypertonic (7.2%) and isotonic (0.9%) saline for fluid resuscitation in horses: a randomized, double-blinded, clinical trial. Hypertonic saline solution (7.2%) (HSS) can quickly replace intravascular volume deficits. HSS more recently has been advocated in the treatment of traumatic brain injury, but its use in dehydrated patients remains controversial. Objective: Hypertonic saline solution will show a significant improvement in both clinical and laboratory hydration parameters as compared to isotonic (0.9%) saline solution (ISS). Methods: Endurance horses eliminated from the 2009 Western States 100-mile (220-km) endurance ride and requiring IV fluid therapy were eligible for enrollment in the study. Methods: Twenty-...
Sweat composition in Arabian horses performing endurance exercise on forage-based, low Na rations. Excessive sweat loss during endurance exercise may lead to electrolyte disturbances and previous research suggests dietary factors may affect hydration status. While investigating the effect of dietary fibre type on hydration status, sweat samples were collected which allowed for the evaluation of sweat composition in horses consuming forage-based, low sodium (Na) rations. Objective: To investigate sweat composition in Arabian horses performing endurance type exercise while fed forage-based, rations low in Na. Methods: Six 2-year-old Arabian horses were fed, according to a replicated 3 × 3 La...
The workload and plasma ion concentration in a training match session of high-goal (elite) polo ponies. This study was designed to consider the complexity of the physical effort inherent to horses in polo competitions and the absence of reports in the literature on the effort, intensity and electrolyte changes resulting from a collective team training session aimed at preparing for a polo championship. Objective: To determine the effort and ion changes caused by an outdoor polo training match for a 25 goal handicap (elite) based on physiological variables including acid-base status (venous pH, PCO(2) and HCO(3)(-)), packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin (Hb), lactate, glucose, sodium, chloride a...
Endurance veterinarians detect physiologically compromised horses in a 160 km ride. This study investigated the physiology of endurance horses competing in warm weather over technical terrain, a situation where horses may become metabolically compromised. Objective: There will be changes in physiological, haematological and biochemical variables as horses progress through the 160 km ride and horses detected clinically at the veterinary inspections as metabolically compromised will have significant differences in measured laboratory variables compared to horses that complete the ride successfully. Methods: Forty-eight horses competing in the Australian Tom Quilty 160 km endura...
Changes in arterial, mixed venous and intraerythrocytic ion concentrations during prolonged exercise. Prolonged equine exercise can cause hypochloraemic alkalosis and hypokalaemia secondary to the loss of hypertonic sweat. Movement of ions in and out of erythrocytes during exercise may help regulate acid-base balance and changes in plasma ion concentrations. The extent to which this happens during prolonged equine exercise has not been reported. Objective: To measure changes in blood gases and major plasma and intraerythrocytic (iRBC) ion concentrations of horses undergoing prolonged submaximal exercise. Methods: Six horses were trotted at ∼ 30% VO2max on a treadmill for 105 min. Arterial ((...
Acid-base balance parameters and a value of anion gap of arterial and venous blood in Małopolski horses. The comparative study of the acid-base balance (ABB) parameters has been performed on 20 clinically healthy mature Małopolski horses. An arterial blood sample from the facial artery and a sample of venous blood from the external cervical vein were colected from each animal. In the samples tested, the blood pH, pCO2, tCO2, HCO3-, concentration of Na+, K+, Cl-, and a value of the anion gap were determined. The difference among pCO2, tCO2, and HCO3- in both samples tested was statistically significant, whereas the pH of the arterial blood and the pH of the venous blood did not differ significant...
Electrophysiological characterization of electrolyte and nutrient transport across the small intestine in horses. The aim of this study was to characterize the transport mechanisms of electrolytes and nutrients across the jejunum of nine healthy horses electrophysiologically. The stripped mucosa was mounted in Ussing chambers and tissue conductances (G(t)) and short circuit currents (I(sc)) were continuously monitored. After blocking the sodium and potassium channels with amiloride, tetraethylammonium chloride (TEA) and barium, chloride secretion was stimulated by carbachol and forskolin. Subsequently, chloride channels were inhibited by 4,4'-diisothiocyanato-stilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid, 5-nitro-2-(3-ph...
Effect of sucralfate on total carbon dioxide concentration in horses subjected to a simulated race test. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that sucralfate, a gastric ulcer medication, would alter plasma concentrations of total carbon dioxide (tCO2), lactate (LA), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-) and total protein (TP), as well as calculated plasma strong ion difference (SID) and packed cell volume (PCV) in horses subjected to a simulated race test (SRT). Six unfit Standardbred mares (approximately 520 kg, 9-18 years) were used in a randomized crossover design with the investigators blinded to the treatment given. The horses were assigned to either a control (40-50 m...