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Topic:Competition
Competition and horses encompass the various equestrian sports and events in which horses participate, ranging from show jumping and dressage to eventing and endurance racing. These competitions test the physical abilities, training, and partnership between horse and rider. Each discipline has specific rules and standards that guide performance and judging criteria. The role of horses in these competitions involves not only athletic prowess but also considerations of health, nutrition, and welfare to ensure optimal performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the impact of competition on equine physiology, training methodologies, performance metrics, and the welfare implications for horses involved in competitive sports.
Sweating. Fluid and ion losses and replacement. In the horse, sweat is produced by apocrine glands which are present over most haired and nonhaired skin. Although sweat secretion is initiated under a number of circumstances, the central drive for sweating in response to a thermal stimulus is the primary mechanism for its production. Sweating is an essential and primary mechanism for heat dissipation during exercise or exposure to hot ambient conditions. The rate of sweat production will reflect the interaction of numerous factors, including exercise intensity, ambient conditions, state of hydration, and the training or heat acclimation stat...
Fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balances in three-day, combined-training horses. Horses competing in 3-day, combined-training events develop a metabolic acidosis that is partially compensated for by a respiratory alkalosis immediately after phases B and D. By the end of phase C and 30 minutes to 2 hours after phase D, the acidosis is resolved by the oxidation of lactate, and a metabolic alkalosis prevails. A reduction in TBW and cation content occurs, which often is not replenished 12 to 24 hours after the event, even though the serum or plasma concentration of various constituents may be within normal limits. Hypochloremia and hypocalcemia, however, may persist 12 or more...
[Cortisol levels in blood and urine of trotting horses]. Statistical analysis of normally occurring cortisol levels in serum and urine of horses served to recommend thresholds for this corticosteroid in these body fluids, as application of exogenous cortisol as well as ACTH may elevate the cortisol concentrations above the proposed threshold. The present study contributes to the general issue of how to establish thresholds for trotting horses upon sportive examination. 100 randomly selected post competition serum and urine samples, respectively, were submitted to cortisol analysis by means of HPLC. Concentrations of the endogenous corticosteroid in ...
Cortisol concentrations in post competition horse urine: a French and British survey. The purpose of the present report was to estimate the population parameters of cortisol concentrations in urine, an endogenous hormone used as a 'doping' agent and for which an international threshold (1.0 micrograms/ml) has been proposed. Two data bases (French and UK) corresponding to 112 and 142 samples, respectively were considered. Urine was collected under specific post competition conditions. Cortisol concentrations were obtained by validated methods (HPLC for the French samples, and GC-MS for UK samples). No difference was observed between the 2 data sets and statistical analyses were ...
Effects of trot quality and collection on the angular velocity in the hindlimbs of riding horses. The angular velocities of the hindlimb angles of 14 horses, including 6 Grand Prix dressage horses, 4 horses judged as good at the trot and 4 horses judged as poor, were analysed. The horse material was the same as previously used by Holmström (1994) in studies on conformation and trotting gaits in the Swedish Warmblood riding horse. Four consecutive strides of each horse and the corresponding pace were analysed and mean velocity curves (Xh) for each angle were calculated. Before calculation the data were filtered forwards and backwards with a Butterworth third order filter with a cut off fre...
Classification of collected trot, passage and piaffe based on temporal variables. The objective was to determine whether collected trot, passage and piaffe could be distinguished as separate gaits on the basis of temporal variables. Sagittal plane, 60 Hz videotapes of 10 finalists in the dressage competitions at the 1992 Olympic Games were analysed to measure the temporal variables in absolute terms and as percentages of stride duration. Classification was based on analysis of variance, a graphical method and discriminant analysis. Stride duration was sufficient to distinguish collected trot from passage and piaffe in all horses. The analysis of variance showed that the mea...
Comparison of the temporal kinematics of the canter pirouette and collected canter. The objectives were to compare the temporal characteristics of canter pirouette strides with collected canter strides in elite dressage horses, and to determine whether the stride kinematics of the canter pirouettes fulfilled the requirements specified in the Federation Equestre Internationale Rules for Dressage Events. Eleven horses were videotaped (60 fields/s) during the individual medal competition at the 1992 Olympic Games. Temporal variables were extracted from the videotapes using standard methods. Two strides were analysed on each of the left and right leads and these were pooled to gi...
Body weight, fluid, electrolyte, and hormonal changes in horses competing in 50- and 100-mile endurance rides. To investigate effects of prolonged exercise on fluid and electrolyte losses in horses competing in 50- and 100-mile endurance competitions, with emphasis on recovery. Methods: Changes in body weight (BW); PCV; serum osmolality; plasma total protein, lactate, aldosterone, and serum electrolyte concentrations; and exchangeable cation content were measured in 12 and 7 horses before and after and before, during, and after successful completion of 50- and 100-mile endurance rides, respectively. Methods: BW was measured by use of a portable load bar scale, and blood samples were collected during th...
Pharmacokinetics of intravenous and oral prethcamide in horses. The respiratory stimulant prethcamide is a mixture of equal parts of crotethamide and cropropamide. A specific and sensitive gas chromatographic method for the determination of crotethamide and cropropamide in horse plasma and urine is described. Both components of prethcamide were extracted from plasma and urine into dichloromethane. The extracts were analyzed by capillary gas chromatography with thermionic detection in the nitrogen-specific detection mode. The lower limits of quantitation were 4.0 ng ml-1 of plasma and 10.0 ng ml-1 of urine. Calibration curves were linear from 2.0-100 ng ml-...
Patterns of health maintenance on Michigan equine operations. Data from two 12 month prospective monitoring programs that followed management, economics and animal health from randomly-sampled equine operations in Michigan were used to determine patterns of health maintenance. Health maintenance measures were grouped, and average uses per year were computed for the most-common measures reported: respiratory, Potomac Horse Fever, neurological and multiple-system vaccinations, deworming, and general farrier work. Factors examined for potential association with health maintenance measure use were numbers of equids and horse-days on the operation, average ag...
Exercise intolerance in endurance horses. Endurance competition requires synchronism and development of metabolic and musculoskeletal systems. An understanding of the existence of performance-limiting factors may permit the detection of exercise intolerance that could lead to performance failure, fatigue, and exhaustion. New concepts for assessment of fitness have increased the understanding of individual capacities and deficiencies and the interaction of the different systems involved in exercise.
Sweat fluid and ion losses in horses during training and competition in cool vs. hot ambient conditions: implications for ion supplementation. The objectives of this study were to: 1) determine incremental and total sweat fluid and ion losses during and following (a) exercise training and (b) a treadmill Speed and Endurance exercise test (SEET) which simulated running speeds and distances required for each phase of an Olympic level (CCI****) 3-day-event in cool and hot ambient conditions and 2) determine the requirement for ion supplementation based on the calculated ion losses associated with these activities. Six exercise-trained Thoroughbred horses completed 2 weeks of exercise training in each of 2 ambient conditions: cool, dry (...
Recovery of horses from dysautonomia (grass sickness). The outcome for 35 horses with chronic dysautonomia which were kept in the hospital at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and subsequently returned to their owners is recorded. They constituted 42.7 per cent of the 82 chronic cases seen between 1991 and 1994; the other 47 horses were euthanased while in hospital. Of the 35 animals returned to their owners four died and 27 were available for follow up; of these 27, 12 were working competitively and six were being trained for future competitive work. It takes at least a year before it is clear whether a horse can compete successfully ...
Estimation of metabolic energy cost and heat production during a 3-day-event. The metabolic power required for sustained exercise in the horse is proportional to running speed. Moderately fast speeds require substantial energy expenditure and result in the generation of a massive metabolic heat load. Quantitative estimates of energy expenditure and heat production of horses at various running speeds were developed using empirically derived data from treadmill studies. Total metabolic power represents the sum of aerobic power indicated by the rate of oxygen consumption and net anaerobic power indicated by the rate of plasma lactate accumulation. These data were applied t...
Heart rate response and plasma lactate concentrations of horses competing in the cross-country phase of combined training events. The exercise intensity of horses (n = 175) competing in the cross-country phase of 4 combined training events at 5 levels of competition [novice (N), training (T), preliminary (P), intermediate (I) and advanced (A)] was investigated. Environmental conditions varied from cool and humid (mean +/- s.d. temperature and humidity = 12.1 degrees C +/- 0.6 and 88.4% +/- 8.9 RH) to moderately hot and humid (27.8 degrees C +/- 2.1 and 62.5% +/- 7.8 RH). Heart rates (beats/min) were recorded continuously at 5 s intervals with a heart monitor. Mean +/- s.d. heart rates (beats/min) for each level of compet...
Heart rate response and plasma lactate concentrations of horses competing in the speed and endurance phase of 3-day combined training events. The exercise intensity of horses competing in 3-day combined training events at 3 different levels of competition (CCI, n = 7; CCI, n = 11; CCI, n = 23) was investigated. Environmental conditions during all events were cool with 100% cloud cover. Heart rates were continuously recorded at 5 s intervals by a heart rate monitor. Mean +/- s.d. heart rate for all horses during each phase were: Phase A = 118 +/- 11 beats/min, Phase B = 179 +/- 22.7 beats/min, Phase C = 129 +/- 13.9 beats/min and Phase D = 174 +/- 19.6 beats/min. Mean +/- s.d. heart rates on Phase A and C were significantly different...
An index of the environmental thermal load imposed on exercising horses and riders by hot weather conditions. There is a need to determine objectively the environmental heat load imposed on horses competing to an international standard in 3-day-events in environments where there is likely to be a high level of radiation added to high ambient temperatures and relative humidity; the presently used FEI 'Comfort Index' is severely limited in its applicability. It is proposed that the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) Index be used. This index was originally established for man exercising strenuously under harsh climatic conditions with high solar radiation levels. It may be defined as: WBGT = 0.7Twb + 0.3...
Acid:base and serum biochemistry changes in horses competing at a modified 1 Star 3-day-event. We examined the effects of participation in each of 3 modifications of Day 2 of a 3-day-event on blood and serum variables indicative of hydration, acid:base status and electrolyte homeostasis of horses. Three groups of horses - 8 European (E) horses and 2 groups each of 9 North American horses performed identical Days 1 (dressage) and 3 (stadium jumping) of a 3-day-event. E horses and one group of the North American horses (TD) performed modifications of Day 2 of a 1 Star 3-day-event and the other group of North American horses (HT) performed a Horse Trial on Day 2. Jugular venous blood was c...
Physiological responses of horses competing at a modified 1 star 3-day-event. The impending 1996 summer Olympic 3-day-event in Atlanta has focused attention on the need to determine what modifications to the demanding Endurance Test will be required to ensure safety of the horses competing. Three groups of horses participated in a Field Trial held in August of 1994 in northern Georgia to determine the safety and feasibility of conducting a modified 3-day-event in hot, humid weather. One group (TD) completed a modified 1 Star 3-day-event test, a control group (HT) completed a Horse Trial identical to the modified 1 Star test except for the omission of Phases B and C and ...
Physiological responses to the endurance test of a 3-day-event during hot and cool weather. Physiological data were collected during two 3-day-event competitions: one (H) held in hot and the other (CL) in cool conditions. During H, ambient temperature and relative humidity were 2.5 degrees C-35 degrees C and 74-36% respectively, while during CL, ambient temperature and relative humidity were 7.8 degrees C-8.3 degrees C and 46%-41%, respectively. Rectal temperature, heart and respiratory rates were recorded on arrival at the event, at the end of Phase C and 6 min later, at the end of Phase D and for 30 min at 10 min intervals after each horse finished Phase D (Recovery Period). Becaus...
Blood ionized calcium concentrations in horses before and after the cross-country phase of three-day event competition. Blood ionized calcium (Ca2+) and pH; plasma lactate concentrations; and total protein, total calcium (CaT), albumin, and phosphorus concentrations in serum were determined in 40 healthy horses before (T1), at the finish line (T2), and 10 minutes after the finish (T3) of the cross-country phase of a 3-day-event competition. Mean (+/- SEM) Ca2+ concentrations decreased from 6.22 +/- 0.04 mg/dl at T1 to 5.04 +/- 0.07 mg/dl at T2 (P < or = 0.05). This decrease was accompanied by a nonsignificant increase in CaT between T1 and T2. The mean (+/- SEM) percent ionization of calcium decreased signif...
Preparing for and competing in the heat: the human perspective. This review provides an overview of the challenges that face man and horses when exercising in the heat. Some of the strategies that are used and are being developed for human athletes exercising in the heat are reviewed. There are many similarities between human and equine physiological responses to exercise in the heat; and equine exercise science may gain some useful insights from the training, fluid replacement and heat acclimatisation strategies used by human athletes. There are, however, some important differences that impact on the ability of horses to thermoregulate and to regulate flu...
Effects of shortening the steeplechase phase (phase B) of a 3-day-event. Thirty-four horses competing in the Endurance Test of a 3-day-event were divided into 3 groups: horses in Group 1 (n = 15) competing in a 3.5 min steeplechase phase; horses in Group 2 (n = 13) in a 3 min steeplechase phase (Phase B) and horses in Group 3 (n = 6) in a 2.5 min steeplechase phase. The shortening of Phase B was associated with a lengthening of Phase C so that the total distance of the event for all horses was 14,940 m. Bodyweight (BW) was measured and total body water (TBW) and water loss estimated. Blood samples were collected from the horses prior to the Endurance Test, at the e...
[Horse controls–animal welfare in equine sports]. In the course of ten horse-shows 248 horses were submitted to a short veterinary examination in the course of the horse controls that were introduced in 1991. In 143 horses (57.6%) animal cruelty preventive deficiencies were found. The results of the horse controls are compared to previous results and discussed from the point of view of animal protection.
Weight, water, and cation losses in horses competing in a three-day event. Body weight of 48 horses competing in a 3-day event was measured the day before the event (baseline), following the dressage phase of the event (day 1), after the endurance phases of the event (day 2), and 18 to 24 hours after the endurance phases (day 3). Plasma sodium and potassium concentrations were measured the evening before, immediately after, and 10 minutes after the endurance phases. Total body water, water loss, and net exchangeable cation loss were then calculated. Body weight and total body water were significantly decreased, compared with baseline values, at all times during the e...
