Topic:Diagnostic Imaging
Diagnostic imaging in horses encompasses a range of techniques used to visualize the internal structures of the equine body for the purpose of diagnosis and treatment planning. These techniques include radiography, ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and nuclear scintigraphy. Each modality offers unique advantages in assessing different tissues and conditions, such as bone fractures, soft tissue injuries, and joint abnormalities. Radiography is commonly employed for evaluating bone structures, while ultrasonography is frequently used for soft tissue assessment. MRI and CT provide detailed cross-sectional images, facilitating the examination of complex anatomical regions. Nuclear scintigraphy can detect areas of increased bone activity, often used in lameness evaluations. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the applications, advancements, and comparative effectiveness of diagnostic imaging modalities in equine veterinary practice.
Morel-Lavallée lesion on the craniomedial aspect of the stifle in a horse: diagnosis, surgical management and outcome. Morel-Lavallée lesions (MLLs) are post-traumatic, closed, degloving injuries observed in humans and cats. Morel-Lavallée lesions have never been reported in horses. An 8-year-old Warmblood gelding used for dressage presented with a large swelling on the craniomedial aspect of the stifle that did not respond to conservative treatment. Ultrasonography revealed a large anechogenic fluid-filled cavity with a well-defined capsule. Standing endoscopic examination revealed separation between the deep crural fascia, vastus medialis muscle and skin. Cytology of the fluid collected demonstrated a lymp...
Magnetic resonance Imaging for diagnosing and managing deep digital flexor tendinopathy in equine athletes: Insights, advances and future directions. Deep digital flexor (DDF) tendinopathy is a significant cause of lameness and poor performance in equine athletes with substantial implications for their return to athletic performance. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is increasingly integrated into the diagnostic workup of horses with foot pain and has revolutionised the diagnosis and management of these injuries. This review discusses the principles of MRI in the context of deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) injury, comparing high-field and low-field systems and highlighting the clinical relevance of technical parameters, including field str...
Internal carotid artery dolichoarteriopathies in the horse: An endoscopic and anatomic study. Endoscopy of the guttural pouches in neonatal foals occasionally reveals atypical aspects in the course of the extracranial internal carotid arteries (ICAs) that are hardly seen in adult horses. While in veterinary medicine the data available on the presence of these anomalies in domestic mammals are limited and incomplete, in human medicine the morphological aspects of the ICAs have been the subject of extensive studies. Anomalies in the course and geometry of ICAs are commonly defined as dolichoarteriopathies, and should be classified as tortuous, kinked or coiled. To document whether the an...
Oral Extraction and Nasal Retrieval of a Fragmented Maxillary Fourth Premolar Tooth in a Horse Using Endoscopic Guidance: A Case Report. This case report presents the removal of the left maxillary fourth premolar tooth (208) which had a chronic complicated crown root fracture in a 9-year-old Warmblood mare. Following a 14-month history of malodorous nasal discharge, clinical and radiographic examination allowed the diagnosis of a comminuted crown root fracture of 208 and oronasal fistula. Some root fragments inaccessible for oral extraction were subsequently removed using a transnasal approach through the existing oronasal fistulous tract using bronchoesophageal forceps under endoscopic guidance. The oronasal fistula was surgic...
Prediction of Gestational Age in Warmblood, Standardbred and Thoroughbred Horses Based on the Table Established in Light Breed Horses Using Foetal Ultrasonographic Measurements of Four Biometric Parameters. Using the equation of Hartwig et al. and the table established for light breed horses, day of gestation was predicted in 108 Warmblood (WB) and 59 racehorses (Thoroughbred [TB] and Standardbred [STB]) pregnant mares. In WB, gestational ages were predicted within 2 weeks from 100 to 200 days of gestation using biparietal diameter (BPD), aortic diameter (AortD) or femur length (FL); within 2 weeks from 100 to 250 days using BPD or AortD; within 2 weeks from 100 to 300 days using BPD alone; and within 3 weeks from 100 to 350 days using eye approximated volume (EyV) alone. In the ...
Novel Intracardiac Ultrasound Images Developed on a Cardiac Ultrasound Simulator and Validated in Live Horses. Ultrasonographic guidance of catheter-based interventions in horses is based primarily on transthoracic echocardiography (TTE). Intracardiac echocardiography (ICE) has the potential to provide detailed imaging of specific cardiac regions. Insight and training in echocardiographic guidance can be acquired using an echocardiography simulator. Objective: Use an echocardiography simulator for horses to determine specific ICE views for catheter-based interventions and validate these in live horses. Methods: Six adult healthy experimental horses. Methods: Observational study. An echocardiographic ph...
A dorsal ultrasound-guided approach to perineural injection of the sixth and seventh cervical spinal nerves in horses is accurate and does not result in epidural placement. To determine the accuracy of a dorsal ultrasound-guided approach for perineural injection of the sixth and seventh cervical spinal nerves (CSNs) with the use of a clinically relevant volume of injectate (2 mL). We hypothesized that the majority of injections would result in identification of contrast solution in the intervertebral foramen (IVF) on CT and corresponding methylene blue dye staining of the CSN on postmortem evaluation, and distribution of injectate into the epidural space would not occur. Unassigned: 7 horses donated to the University of Pennsylvania New Bolton Center for euthanas...
Computed tomographic measurements in 110 front hooves of non-lame Thoroughbred racehorses and Warmblood showjumpers. There are no published reference ranges on computed tomographic (CT) hoof wall and sole measurements. Objective: To establish reference ranges for CT measurements of the hoof wall and sole in non-lame horses, and to investigate associations between measurements and signalment, laterality, and medial or lateral sides. Methods: Retrospective, cross-sectional study. Methods: Soft tissue reconstructions of fan-beam CT studies of 110 front feet of 56 non-lame horses (30 Thoroughbred racehorses, 26 Warmblood showjumpers), performed in non- to semi-weightbearing positions, were analysed. Hoof wall th...
What is the “train track” in the retained equine testis? A 3-year-old Quarter horse stallion with unilateral left cryptorchidism was referred for the absence of the left testis in the scrotal bursa and an enlarged right testis. The ultrasonographic examination revealed the presence of the left testis at the abdominal level. Two small hyperechogenic lines were observed running parallel and resembling a cylindrical cavitary foreign body, within a non-homogeneous area with blurred margins. The testis was removed by laparoscopy and macroscopically, the testis's cut section revealed the presence of two live adult nematodes emerging from 2 mm blood-filled...
[Diagnostic imaging of the equine cervical spine – Part one: Radiography – A review of the literature on findings and their clinical significance]. A number of indications exist that necessitate radiologic examination of the equine cervical spine. Different neurologic and pain-associated clinical signs within the scope of lameness or poor performance may be associated to pathologies of the cervical spine. Moreover, the number of requests for radiographic examinations of the cervical spine, for example as part of the pre-purchase examination, has increased significantly in recent years. However, the interpretation of radiographs represents a challenge, particularly in the case of clinically sound horses, as it often necessitates the resolu...
Gross anatomy, computed tomographic contrast tenography, and needle endoscopy of the equine medial digital flexor tendon sheath. To investigate the computed tomography (CT) and gross anatomy of the equine medial digital flexor tendon sheath (MDFTS), and the endoscopic anatomy and approach to the MDFTS. Methods: Ex vivo experimental study and one clinical case. Methods: Twelve clinically normal cadaveric hindlimbs. Methods: Dissection, native and contrast CT scans were conducted to evaluate the anatomy of the MDFTS. Based on these findings, the portal locations for the endoscopic approaches were determined. Six hindlimbs were used in the pilot phase and another six limbs were selected for the main study. Endoscopic image...
Prediction of the start of parturition in mares using camera image analysis. This study aimed to detect characteristic changes in the behavior and body surface temperature (BST) of pregnant mares before parturition using camera image analysis. A total of 53 pregnant Thoroughbred mares, which were individually stabled in box stalls, were included in this study. The mares were continuously monitored using a digital camera system comprising a thermal imaging camera and a visible camera. For the automatic determination of the x and y coordinates of each mare, the centroid of the mares was calculated using image processing software. Subsequently, trajectory analysis was per...
Major Salivary Gland Examinations of the Donkey (Equus asinus) Using Sectional Anatomy, Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Visualizing the major salivary glands (MSGs) in domestic mammals using plain radiology and identifying damaged their structures is impossible. To accurately display MSGs, the knowledge of normal sectional imaging anatomy is essential for veterinarians, aiding them significantly in identifying the exact relations and position of MSGs; however, no reports on the MSGs sectional imaging anatomy in this species have been made. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and gross sections of MSGs. Methods: Seven healthy adult donkeys were used ...
Equestrian Trauma in an Urban Environment: A Retrospective Analysis in a Level I Trauma Center. Equestrian trauma is recognized as a high-risk injury mechanism with the potential for significant morbidity and mortality. Although horse-related injuries are more frequently seen in a rural environment, they can also occur in urban settings. Urban physicians should be mindful of these potential cases. Methods: A retrospective review was performed on all patients treated at Nassau University Medical Center, East Meadow, New York, for equestrian-related trauma from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2024. Results: Twenty-nine equestrian trauma patients ages 10-70 were included, with injuries ob...
Relationship between back pain and poor performance in show jumping athletic horses. Showjumping athletic horses are frequently affected by back pain, which in turn influences their performance and equestrian activities. Unassigned: The aim of the present study was to determine the etiological factors predisposing to back problems in show jumping horses and how to diagnose, and manage them. Unassigned: A total of 75 cases (45 geldings and 30 mares, aged between 8 and 23 years and weighing 420-550 Kg) with histories suggestive of back problems and low competitive ability as show jumping were used in this study. The evaluation of data was based on the inputs of case history, cli...
Equine colic: A comprehensive overview of the sonographic evaluation, diagnostic criteria, and management of different categories. Colic or acute abdominal pain is the most prevalent cause of emergency intervention in veterinary medicine, and it has been considered the principal reason for collapse and/or euthanasia in a wide range of studies. The condition may be initiated by a number of different disorders affecting the abdominal viscera, but acute gut disease is the most common etiology in equines showing colic symptoms. of the main goals of colic management is to distinguish between surgical and medical causes, as prompt surgical intervention can significantly improve outcomes for those requiring surgery. Despite the ...
Combined standing low-field magnetic resonance imaging and fan-beam computed tomographic diagnosis of fetlock region pain in 27 sports horses. There is no description of comparative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and fan-beam computed tomography (CT) findings in the fetlock of lame sports horses. Objective: To document low-field MRI and fan-beam CT diagnoses in the lame and nonlame limbs of sports horses with fetlock region pain, and to evaluate whether combined imaging provides superior information to either technique alone. Methods: Retrospective descriptive study. Methods: Clinical records of sports horses with pain causing lameness localised to the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joint region that had undergone fan-beam CT and lo...
Real-time ancillary diagnostics for intraoperative assessment of intestinal viability in horses-looking for answers across species. Clinical intestinal viability assessment is associated with significant limitations, and there is an undisputable need for ancillary diagnostics during colic surgery. Human and companion animal surgeons struggle with similar intraoperative issues, yet there is little exchange between specialists. Therefore, this narrative review aimed to create an overview of real-time ancillary diagnostics with the potential for intraoperative intestinal viability assessment in horses. Most real-time ancillary diagnostics can be classified as either tissue perfusion or oxygenation assessments. Intestinal perf...
Spondylosis in Horses: Clinical Features, Diagnostic Imaging Findings, Treatment and Outcome in 13 Horses. Back pain is a debilitating condition hampering horses' athletic careers. Thoracic spondylosis (TS), a known cause of back pain, leads to osteophytes formation across intervertebral joints. In horses, TS is poorly reported, with anecdotal signs and response to treatment. To report clinical presentation, diagnostic imaging findings, treatment and outcome in horses with TS. The clinical records of horses diagnosed with TS between 2010 and 2023 were reviewed. Signalment, clinical and imaging findings, treatment, and outcome were analysed. Thoracic spondylosis was graded from 1 to 5. Grades, concu...
It is not always what it seems: allantochorion cervical pole necrosis. A 286-day pregnant mare was referred for signs of impending abortion. The ultrasonographic evaluation revealed a high normal combined thickness of the utero-placental unit (CTUP), oligohydroallantois and a living fetus. No vulvar discharge was observed, and the cervical swab culture was negative. After a choke, the mare received NSAIDs and antibiotics and then developed systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and aborted. The amniotic portion of the umbilical cord was excessively long and twisted and the chorionic side of the placenta showed a brown discoloration and rough surface area....
Selection of density standard and X-ray tube settings for computed digital absorptiometry in horses using the k-means clustering algorithm. In veterinary medicine, conventional radiography is the first-choice method for most diagnostic imaging applications in both small animal and equine practice. One direction in its development is the integration of bone density evaluation and artificial intelligence-assisted clinical decision-making, which is expected to enhance and streamline veterinarians' daily practices. One such decision-support method is k-means clustering, a machine learning and data mining technique that can be used clinically to classify radiographic signs into healthy or affected clusters. The study aims to investigat...
Resistivity and Pulsatility Indexes Renal Values Do Not Differ When Obtained from Abdominal or Transrectal Approaches in Healthy Horses. Early detection of renal deficient function is imperative for the success of treatments and determining prognosis. In horses, a renal ultrasound can be performed through the abdominal wall (TA) or transrectally (TR), being an important tool for the evaluation of the kidneys. Besides renal morphology, resistivity (RI) and pulsatility indexes (PI) may be early tools to detect renal injury as they reflect arterial compliance. Twenty-nine healthy adult horses were sonographically evaluated by TA and TR approaches, measuring RI and PI on both kidneys. The mean values from the TA for RI and PI in th...
Computed Tomographic Tenography of the Equine Carpal Flexor Tendon Sheath. Exploratory tenoscopy is considered the gold standard technique to identify intrathecal pathology of the equine carpal flexor tendon sheath (CFTS). Preoperative diagnosis allows for more precise prognostication and surgical planning, potentially associated with improved surgical outcomes. This prospective, descriptive, anatomical study aimed to describe the anatomy of the equine CFTS using noncontrast and contrast CT in clinically normal cadaver limbs. Ten pairs of equine forelimbs free of gross external abnormalities were examined from mid-antebrachium to distal metacarpus. Specimens initiall...
Preoperative computed tomography imaging for accurate diagnosis and surgical planning in equine cranial disorders: two case reports of congenital malformations. Computed tomography (CT) offers high-resolution, three-dimensional imaging, making it particularly valuable for assessing complex structures, such as the head, especially when conventional radiography and endoscopy are insufficient for a definitive diagnosis. Herein, we present two cases of equine cranial disorders resulting from congenital malformations. In case 1, which had a dentigerous cyst, CT images confirmed the location of the ectopic tooth within the skull and a detailed fistula tube. In case 2, which had temporohyoid osteoarthropathy, CT examination revealed that the stylohyoid bone ...
Intranasal Dental Repulsion of a Displaced Cheek Tooth in an Arabian Filly. This case report documents an unusual cheek tooth (CT) displacement in a 3-year-old Arabian filly. The horse was referred to the clinic for loss of appetite and right-sided facial deformity. At admission, an oral inspection was performed, followed by a dental radiographic examination. The radiographs showed a very oblique vertical angulation (135°) of the CT 106 compared to the other premolars (107 and 108 CTs) (40°). In consideration of the clinical and radiographic findings, surgical extraction of the 106 CT was indicated. Due to the unique positioning of the displaced tooth, traditional e...
Diagnosis and treatment of a congenital cervical tracheal diverticulum in an Arabian foal. Tracheal congenital defects are infrequent but serious findings in animals. Tracheal diverticula are congenital air-filled cystic lesions, a sub-type of paratracheal air cyst mainly found extra-thoracically in foals. We describe a case in a twelve-day old show Arabian colt with right sided unilateral cervical swelling since birth. Percutaneous ultrasound revealed a heterogeneously air- and fluid-filled spheroid mass, and upper airway endoscopy confirmed luminal communication to the trachea. Contrasted computed tomography showed a narrow isthmus originating between two proximal tracheal rings a...
Medical treatment of sand enteropathy with psyllium, magnesium sulphate and paraffin oil in 54 Western Australian equids. Sand enteropathy describes the clinical signs attributed to accumulation of sand in the gastrointestinal tract. Psyllium combined with magnesium sulphate has been recommended for clearing intestinal sand, but this has only been evaluated in one population. The combination of these two agents with paraffin oil has not been investigated. Objective: To investigate the effectiveness of paraffin oil, psyllium and magnesium sulphate combined in clearing intestinal sand in horses diagnosed with sand enteropathy. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Medical records of horses presenting for san...
Mild radiographic abnormalities of thoracolumbar spinous processes are not associated with decreased performance in 100 Warmblood jumping horses in active competition. Back pain is a common cause of poor performance in horses. However, the relationship between clinical signs and radiographic abnormalities is unclear. The aim of this study was to report radiographic findings of spinous processes in a population of Warmblood jumping horses and their association with performance. This was a descriptive observational study. One hundred Warmblood jumping horses (competing fence height: median 1.35 m, mean 1.3 m, range 0.90m-1.60 m), with no observed lameness and neurological signs, competing in 2018 were selected. Radiographs of spinous processes of the thoracolu...
Post-mortem computed tomography features associated with fracture of the fetlock joint in racing Thoroughbreds. Post-mortem studies have shown that fractures involving the metacarpophalangeal/metatarsophalangeal or fetlock joint are associated with focal areas of microdamage. Identification of computed tomography (CT) features consistent with microdamage and their association with fracture may aid in identification of horses at risk of fracture. Objective: To identify CT features associated with fracture of the metacarpophalangeal/metatarsophalangeal joint. Methods: Retrospective cohort study. Methods: Post-mortem CT images of 367 limbs from 157 Thoroughbred racehorses were graded for CT features. Multi...
The inability of spectral Doppler ultrasonography to identify stallions with testicular dysfunction. This retrospective study aimed to validate the usefulness of spectral Doppler ultrasonography in diagnosing testicular dysfunction in stallions. The first part of the study included a pony stallion with age-related testicular degeneration (18 - 21 yrs. old). Testicular dimensions, spectral Doppler parameters of testicular blood flow, and semen parameters were obtained numerous times from this pony over four consecutive years. While testicular volume decreased dramatically, and the stallion became azoospermic, there were no changes in any of the spectral Doppler parameters of testicular blood f...