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Topic:Exercise Physiology
Exercise physiology in horses involves the study of the physiological responses and adaptations of horses to physical activity. This field examines how exercise impacts various systems in the equine body, including the cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular, and metabolic systems. Researchers focus on understanding how these systems interact during different types and intensities of exercise, and how they contribute to performance and recovery. Key areas of interest include the assessment of aerobic and anaerobic capacity, muscle fiber composition, energy metabolism, and thermoregulation. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanisms of exercise physiology in horses, with an emphasis on performance optimization, training regimens, and the prevention of exercise-related disorders.
Physiological demands of therapeutic horseback riding in children with moderate to severe motor impairments: an exploratory study. To examine energy expenditure at rest and during a single therapeutic horseback riding (THR) session in children with moderate to severe motor impairments. Methods: Heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (.VO2), and minute ventilation (.VE) were measured continuously during a 10-minute rest period and during a typical THR session. Results: Seven children (4 males, mean age 12.3 ± 3.5 years) completed the protocol. Significant increases from rest were seen for mean HR, .VO2, .VE, and energy expenditure. Based on .VO2, 43.3 ± 24.3% of the THR session consisted of sedentary, 44.4 ± 13.4% of light, and...
Short-term and long-term PQ, QT and R-R intervals’ variability at the resting condition and after exercise testing in healthy Anglo-Arabian horses. The duration of electrocardiographic (ECG) parameters: PQ, QT and R-R intervals change during long-term and short-term observation as the consequence of the fluctuations in autonomic nervous system activity among others dependent on the exercise and resting. There is no data of horse breed influence on these parameters. The aim of the study was to assess the duration and the variability of the PQ, QT and R-R intervals in the resting conditions and after exercise testing in Anglo-Arabian horses. Methods: 27 healthy Anglo-Arabian horses aged 3.4 +/- 1.0 years (15 male, 12 female) had ECG examina...
Speed and incline during thoroughbred horse racing: racehorse speed supports a metabolic power constraint to incline running but not to decline running. We used a radio tracking system to examine the speed of 373 racehorses on different gradients on an undulating racecourse during 33 races, each lasting a few minutes. Horses show a speed detriment on inclines (0.68 m · s(-1) · 1% gradient(-1), r(2) = 0.97), the magnitude of which corresponds to trading off the metabolic cost (power) of height gain with the metabolic cost (power) of horizontal galloping. A similar relationship can be derived from published data for human runners. The horses, however, were also slower on the decline (-0.45 m · s(-1) · 1% gradient(-1), r(2) = 0.92). Human ath...
Impact of moderate exercise on ovarian blood flow and early embryonic outcomes in mares. The advent of embryo transfer has allowed horses to continue to train and compete during the breeding season. However, the associated stress of exercise may be detrimental to reproduction. The objectives of this study were to evaluate differing exercise protocols on reproductive blood flow and embryonic outcomes in mares. Light-horse mares were randomized into control (n = 4), partial-exercised (n = 6), and full-exercised (n = 6) groups. Partial-exercised mares were moderately exercised 30 min daily during the periovulatory period and rested after ovulation for 7 d. Full-exercised mares were e...
Effect of repeated oral administration of glucose and leucine immediately after exercise on plasma insulin concentration and glycogen synthesis in horses. To determine whether repeated oral administration of glucose and leucine during the period immediately after intense exercise would increase the release of insulin and thereby enhance glycogen synthesis in horses. Methods: 12 Standardbred horses. Methods: In a crossover study design, after glycogen-depleting exercise, horses received oral boluses of glucose (1 g/kg at 0, 2, and 4 hours) and leucine (0.1 g/kg at 0 and 4 hours) or boluses of water (10 mL/kg at 0, 2, and 4 hours; control treatment). Blood samples for determination of glucose, insulin, and leucine concentrations were collected pri...
Effects of clenbuterol administration on serum biochemical, histologic, and echocardiographic measurements of muscle injury in exercising horses. To determine the effects of clenbuterol, at a dosage of up to 3.2 μg/kg for 14 days, PO, on skeletal and cardiac muscle in healthy horses undergoing treadmill exercise. Methods: 12 healthy horses from 3 to 10 years old. Methods: Horses were randomly assigned to a control group (n = 6) or clenbuterol group (6) and received either saline (0.9% NaCl) solution or clenbuterol, PO, every 12 hours for 14 days. Horses were subjected to submaximal treadmill exercise daily during treatment. Muscle biopsy specimens were collected before and after treatment for determination of apoptosis. Echocardiograph...
Gastric emptying, intestinal absorption of electrolytes and exercise performance in electrolyte-supplemented horses. Horses lose considerably more electrolytes through sweating during prolonged exercise than can be readily replaced through feeds. The present study tested an oral electrolyte supplement (ES) designed to replace sweat electrolyte losses. We measured gastric emptying of 3 litres of ES (using gamma imaging of (99)Tc-sulfide colloid), the absorption of Na(+) and K(+) from the gastrointestinal tract using (24)Na(+) and (42)K(+), and the distribution of these ions in the body by measuring radioactivity within plasma and sweat during exercise. Three litres of ES emptied from the stomach as fast as wa...
Proximal hindlimb flexion in the horse: effect on movement symmetry and implications for defining soundness. Flexion tests are a common tool during the prepurchase and clinical lameness examination, yet studies quantifying the effect of flexion, apart from distal forelimb flexion in sound horses, are sparse. Objective: To investigate the effect of proximal hindlimb flexion on perceivable and measurable changes in movement symmetry in horses with objective movement symmetry falling within the margins of 'sound'. Methods: Thirteen horses, selected based on objective movement symmetry, were instrumented with inertial sensors on left and right tuber coxae and over the os sacrum. Vertical movement symmetr...
A forage-only diet alters the metabolic response of horses in training. Most athletic horses are fed a high-starch diet despite the risk of health problems. Replacing starch concentrate with high-energy forage would alleviate these health problems, but could result in a shift in major substrates for muscle energy supply from glucose to short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) due to more hindgut fermentation of fibre. Dietary fat inclusion has previously been shown to promote aerobic energy supply during exercise, but the contribution of SCFA to exercise metabolism has received little attention. This study compared metabolic response with exercise and lactate threshold (VLa...
Plasma protein changes in horse after prolonged physical exercise: a proteomic study. Physical exercise induces various stress responses and metabolic adaptations that have not yet been completely elucidated. Novel biomarkers are needed in sport veterinary medicine to monitor training levels and to detect subclinical conditions that can develop into exercise-related diseases. In this study, protein modifications in horse plasma induced by prolonged, aerobic physical exercise were investigated by using a proteomic approach based on 2-DE and combined mass spectrometry procedures. Thirty-eight protein spots, associated with expression products of 13 genes, showed significant quant...
Physical fitness and mitochondrial respiratory capacity in horse skeletal muscle. Within the animal kingdom, horses are among the most powerful aerobic athletic mammals. Determination of muscle respiratory capacity and control improves our knowledge of mitochondrial physiology in horses and high aerobic performance in general. Results: We applied high-resolution respirometry and multiple substrate-uncoupler-inhibitor titration protocols to study mitochondrial physiology in small (1.0-2.5 mg) permeabilized muscle fibres sampled from triceps brachii of healthy horses. Oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) capacity (pmol O(2) • s(-1) • mg(-1) wet weight) with combined Complex...
Effect of strenuous exercise and ex vivo TLR3 and TLR4 stimulation on inflammatory gene expression in equine pulmonary leukocytes. The effects of strenuous exercise and ex vivo stimulation of TLR3 and TLR4 pathways on the expression of six inflammatory genes in equine pulmonary leukocytes were investigated. The genes tested were interferon-beta (IFN-β), interleukin-1-beta (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10), chemokine (c-c motif) ligand 5 (RANTES) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). We hypothesized that strenuous exercise would modulate basal gene expression on one hand and modulate the response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and to polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Pol...
Accuracy and precision of hind limb foot contact timings of horses determined using a pelvis-mounted inertial measurement unit. Gait analysis using small sensor units is becoming increasingly popular in the clinical context. In order to segment continuous movement from a defined point of the stride cycle, knowledge about footfall timings is essential. We evaluated the accuracy and precision of foot contact timings of a defined limb determined using an inertial sensor mounted on the pelvis of ten horses during walk and trot at different speeds and in different directions. Foot contact was estimated from vertical velocity events occurring before maximum sensor roll towards the contralateral limb. Foot contact timings mat...
Effect of therapeutic horseback riding on balance and gait of people with multiple sclerosis. Exercise therapy is an important part of symptomatic and supportive treatment in patients with multiple sclerosis (PwMS). According to the literature, equine-assisted therapies--such as therapeutic horseback riding (THR) and hippotherapy (HT)--are exercise therapies that can have positive physical effects on coordination, muscle tone, postural alignment, stiffness/flexibility, endurance and strength, correcting abnormal movement patterns and improving gait and balance. While HT is known to have a positive effect on balance in PwMS, data about THR are limited. Objective: The aim of the present ...
Effect of head and neck position on intrathoracic pressure and arterial blood gas values in Dutch Warmblood riding horses during moderate exercise. To evaluate the effect of various head and neck positions on intrathoracic pressure and arterial oxygenation during exercise in horses. Methods: 7 healthy Dutch Warmblood riding horses. Methods: The horses were evaluated with the head and neck in the following predefined positions: position 1, free and unrestrained; position 2, neck raised with the bridge of the nose aligned vertically; position 4, neck lowered and extremely flexed with the nose pointing toward the pectoral muscles; position 5, neck raised and extended with the bridge of the nose in front of a vertical line perpendicular to th...
Myosin heavy chain pattern in the Akhal-Teke horses. This study investigates the myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoform composition in the gluteus medius muscle of the Akhal-Teke horses using SDS-PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis). Fifteen horses aged between 1.5 and 23.5 years were used in this study and divided into three age groups: 1.5 to 4 (n = 6), 9 to 13 (n = 5) and 18.5 to 23.5 years (n = 4). The average content of the MyHC I isoform was 11.72 ± 1.07% (variation between individuals: 7.09% to 20.14%). The relative content of the MyHC IIa and IIx isoforms was subsequently 38.20 ± 1.46% (30.73% to 48.78%) and 50.0...
Dynamic respiratory endoscopy of Standardbred racehorses during qualifying races. Examination of the equine upper airway during racing has not previously been documented. Objective: To describe the feasibility and appearance of the upper airways by overground respiratory endoscopic examination during racing conditions. Methods: Overground videoendoscopic examinations were performed on 46 Standardbred racehorses during qualifying races. Examined horses' speeds were recorded throughout the race with a portable GPS device. Results: The procedure did not interfere with performance as there were no significant differences in race times between races in which horses were examined...
Effect of different blood-guided conditioning programmes on skeletal muscle ultrastructure and histochemistry of sport horses. The effects of three different blood-guided conditioning programmes on ultrastructural and histochemical features of the gluteus medius muscle of 2-year-old sport horses were examined. Six non-trained Haflinger horses performed three consecutive conditioning programmes of varying lactate-guided intensities [velocities eliciting blood lactate concentrations of 1.5 (v1.5 ), 2.5 (v2.5 ) and 4 (v4 ) mm respectively] and durations (25 and 45 min). Each conditioning programme lasted 6 weeks and was followed by a 5-week resting period. Pre-, post- and deconditioning muscle biopsies were analyse...
Acute phase protein concentrations after limited distance and long distance endurance rides in horses. Acute phase proteins (APP) have been described as useful for assessing health in human and animal patients, as they closely reflect the acute phase reaction (APR). In humans and dogs a reaction analogous to APR has also been described after prolonged or strenuous exercise. The aim of this study was to determine, if similar reactions occur in endurance horses after limited and long distance rides. Seventeen horses that successfully completed various distance competitions were tested. Routine haematological and biochemical tests were performed and the concentrations of serum amyloid A (SAA), C-r...
MSTN genotypes in Thoroughbred horses influence skeletal muscle gene expression and racetrack performance. Myostatin, encoded by the MSTN gene, is a member of the TGF-β superfamily that regulates skeletal muscle development. A MSTN SNP significantly associated with Thoroughbred horse racing phenotypes has recently been identified as well as significant reductions in Thoroughbred skeletal muscle gene expression for three transcripts 400-1500 base pairs downstream of the MSTN gene following a period of training. Together, these findings indicate that MSTN genotypes may influence MSTN gene expression. To investigate this, MSTN mRNA expression was measured in biopsies from the middle gluteal muscle fr...
Optimizing human in vivo dosing and delivery of β-alanine supplements for muscle carnosine synthesis. Interest into the effects of carnosine on cellular metabolism is rapidly expanding. The first study to demonstrate in humans that chronic β-alanine (BA) supplementation (~3-6 g BA/day for ~4 weeks) can result in significantly augmented muscle carnosine concentrations (>50%) was only recently published. BA supplementation is potentially poised for application beyond the niche exercise and performance-enhancement field and into other more clinical populations. When examining all BA supplementation studies that directly measure muscle carnosine (n=8), there is a significant linear correlation...
Detection of myo-inositol trispyrophosphate in equine urine and plasma by hydrophillic interaction chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Myo-inositol trispyrophosphate (ITPP) is a new drug capable of increasing the amount of oxygen in hypoxic tissues. Studies have shown that administration of ITPP increases the maximal exercise capacity in normal mice as well as mice with severe heart failure. The properties of ITPP make it an ideal candidate as a doping agent to enhance performance in racehorses. While there have been speculations in the horseracing industry that the covert use of ITPP is already widespread, no reported method exists for the detection of ITPP in equine biological samples. ITPP is a difficult-to-detect drug due...
Cortisol release, heart rate and heart rate variability, and superficial body temperature, in horses lunged either with hyperflexion of the neck or with an extended head and neck position. Bringing the head and neck of ridden horses into a position of hyperflexion is widely used in equestrian sports. In our study, the hypothesis was tested that hyperflexion is an acute stressor for horses. Salivary cortisol concentrations, heart rate, heart rate variability (HRV) and superficial body temperature were determined in horses (n = 16) lunged on two subsequent days. The head and neck of the horse was fixed with side reins in a position allowing forward extension on day A and fixed in hyperflexion on day B. The order of treatments alternated between horses. In response to lunging, ...
Long term intensive exercise training leads to a higher plasma malate/lactate dehydrogenase (M/L) ratio and increased level of lipid mobilization in horses. Continuous high intensity training may induce alterations to enzyme activities related to glucose and lipid metabolism in horses. In our study, five Thoroughbred race horses (3 male and 2 female, avg age=5 yrs old) were compared against five riding horses (1 male, 1 female, 3 gelding, avg age=13 yrs old) in terms of energy metabolism, by examining plasma malate (MDH) and lactate (LDH) dehydrogenase activities and M/L ratio. MDH is involved in NADH and ATP generation, whereas LDH can convert NADH back into NAD(+) for ATP generation. An increase in plasma M/L ratio can reflect heightened energy ...
Repeated post-exercise administration with a mixture of leucine and glucose alters the plasma amino acid profile in Standardbred trotters. The branched chain amino acid leucine is a potent stimulator of insulin secretion. Used in combination with glucose it can increase the insulin response and the post exercise re-synthesis of glycogen in man. Decreased plasma amino acid concentrations have been reported after intravenous or per oral administration of leucine in man as well as after a single per oral dose in horses. In man, a negative correlation between the insulin response and the concentrations of isoleucine, valine and methionine have been shown but results from horses are lacking. This study aims to determine the effect of ...
Physiological changes in jeju crossbred riding horses by swim training. The changes in physiologic parameters by swim exercise duration were examined in five female well-trained Jeju crossbred riding horses that had riding experience of more than three years without swim training experience. The horses were performed with swim exercise for 10 min (60.0 m/min) once a day for 14 days. Physiologic characteristics and haematic parameters were measured before swimming, immediately after swimming, and after a 10 min rest at first day (D0), 7 days (D7), and 14 days (D14) of training. After 14 days of swim training, heart rate (p<0.05), blood glucose (p<0.05), lacta...
Identification of ORF sequences and exercise-induced expression change in thoroughbred horse OXCT1 gene. In the mitochondrial matrix, the OXCT1 gene catalyzes the reversible transfer of coenzyme A from succinyl-CoA to acetoacetate in a reaction related to energy production from ketone bodies. Here, horse OXCT1 gene containing coenzyme A transferase domain was identified in the transcriptome analysis of cDNAs derived from skeletal muscles. Horse OXCT1 gene consisted of 1761 [corrected] nucleotide sequences with an open reading frame of 1560 nucleotides encoding a protein of 520 putative amino acid residues.The number of non-synonymous substitutions was lower than the number of synonymous substitut...
Echocardiographic evaluation of changes in left ventricular size and valvular regurgitation associated with physical training during and after maturity in Standardbred trotters. To assess whether physical training induces cardiac hypertrophy and valvular regurgitation in maturing Standardbred trotters and to establish a prediction model for the size of the left ventricle. Methods: Longitudinal observational study. Methods: 53 Standardbred trotters. Methods: Each horse underwent 2-D, M-mode, and color flow Doppler echocardiography at 5.5 years of age; previously, each horse had been examined at 2, 2.5, 3, and 3.5 (time of maturity) years of age. Horses were or were not in training or racing for variable periods during the entire assessment period; data for a given hors...
Comparative ergoespirometric adaptations to a treadmill exercise test in untrained show Andalusian and Arabian horses. Significant differences exist in the respiratory adaptation to exercise in different equine breeds. This research describes the ergoespirometric response to exercise of Andalusian (AN) and Arabian (A) horses, both selected according to morphological criteria. Thirteen untrained male horses (6 AN and 7 A) performed a treadmill exercise test (TET) with a slope of 6%, with workloads starting from 5 m/s and increasing 1 m/s every 3 min until the horses were not able to keep the required velocity. Tidal volume (TV), respiratory rate, minute ventilation (VE), oxygen uptake (VO2), carbon dioxide prod...
