Exercise in horses encompasses the physical activities that horses engage in, either through natural behaviors or structured training programs. These activities impact a horse's musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems, influencing overall health and performance. Exercise can vary in intensity, duration, and frequency, and its effects are studied to understand conditioning, endurance, and recovery processes in equines. Research in this field often focuses on the physiological adaptations to different types of exercise, the prevention of exercise-related injuries, and the optimization of training regimens for various equestrian disciplines. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the physiological, biomechanical, and health-related aspects of exercise in horses.
Conrad MB, Leatherwood JL, Paris BL, George JM, Martinez RE, Vergara-Hernandez FB, Nielsen BD, Colbath AC, Arnold CE, Glass KG, Welsh TH, Bradbery AN.Extra-label bisphosphonate (BP) use in juvenile horses is anecdotally reported, primarily for analgesic effects, despite the limited scientific understanding of biologic impacts on skeletally immature horses undergoing exercise. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of clodronate disodium (CD), a form of BP, on endocrine regulators of calcium. Thus, 32 yearling Quarter Horses were stratified by age (500 ± 13 d), body weight (BW; 336 ± 26 kg), sex (n = 16 geldings, n = 16 fillies), and initial bone optical density into 1 of 4 treatment groups for a 168-d tr...
Chang X, Zhang Z, Yao X, Meng J, Ren W, Zeng Y.The equine lipid metabolism is activated during and after endurance exercise to provide energy in response to the metabolic and physiological changes in the body caused by prolonged exercise; however, the specific regulatory mechanisms remain controversial and identifying differential lipid metabolites associated with equine endurance is essential to elucidate these regulatory mechanisms. In this study, blood samples for lipid metabolomic analysis and biochemical indices were collected before and after a 26 km race from 12 Yili horses with different endurance performance. The biochemical res...
Annan R, Trigg L, Allen K, Hockenhull J, Valenchon M, Mullan S.Racehorse welfare continues to be a focus of stakeholders both within and outside of the industry, and there is a need for evidence-based animal welfare data. Objective: To gather data on racehorse welfare through a combination of animal-based observations and information about management practices, and to ascertain the feasibility of trained industry assessors carrying out a racehorse welfare assessment. Methods: Cross-sectional. Methods: Sixteen trained industry assessors conducted individual observations of 737 racehorses in 21 Flat racing (F), 27 National Hunt (NH) and 26 Dual-purpose (D) ...
de Chiara M, Montano C, De Matteis A, Guidi L, Buono F, Auletta L, Del Prete C, Pasolini MP.Subjective evaluation of gait by official endurance veterinarians (OEVs) is used to determine 'fitness-to-compete' in horses participating in endurance competitions. Objective gait analysis systems could aid in quick and verifiable judgements. Objective: To assess the agreement between objective analysis of head and pelvis vertical movement asymmetry performed with a markerless artificial intelligence motion tracking system (AI-MTS) and subjective lameness assessment performed by an accredited FEI OEV to judge horse gaits. Methods: Cross-sectional. Methods: During three endurance competitions,...
Wonghanchao T, Sanigavatee K, Poochipakorn C, Huangsaksri O, Chanda M.Changes in resting heart rate (HR) and HR variability (HRV) are utilised to assess training effects in horses. However, limited research has examined how these variables reflect training effects during exercise sessions and recovery periods, particularly in horses of different ages. This study investigated how HR and HRV changed during exercise sessions and recovery periods in untrained adult horses (UAHs; = 9) and geriatric horses (UGHs; = 9). HR and HRV were measured before and during a 54 min exercise bout over a 12-week training programme. Mixed-effects model with Greenhouse-Geisser corr...
Davie A, Beavers R, Denham J.The purpose of this review was to analyze the scientific background and practical application of a very successful human training methodology, the pyramidal training model, to the Thoroughbred racehorse. Despite years of research and accumulated knowledge on human training methods to enhance endurance performance, Thoroughbred training programs have lacked significant change. This review introduces the pyramidal training model, explains the science that underpins this training concept and outlines one approach to translate this science into the equine field. It also discusses the importance of...
Schampheleer J, Eerdekens A, Joseph W, Martens L, Deruyck M.Automatic horse gait classification offers insights into training intensity, but directsensor attachment to horses raises concerns about discomfort, behavioral disruption, andentanglement risks. To address this, our study leverages rider-centric accelerometers formovement classification. The position of a sensor, sampling frequency, and window size ofsegmented signal data have a major impact on classification accuracy in activity recognition.Yet, there are no studies that have evaluated the effect of all these factors simultaneouslyusing accelerometer data from four distinct rider locations (t...
MacKechnie-Guire R, Clayton H, Williams J, Marlin D, Fisher M, Fisher D, Walker V, Murray RC.Information describing forces applied to the horse are needed to inform regulatory decisions regarding equine health and wellbeing. This study compares forces exerted beneath the noseband and headpiece of a snaffle bridle (SB) and a double bridle (DB). Horses were fitted with the same type of SB and DB. Forces were measured by pressure mats under the noseband (nasal/mandibular) and headpiece (occipital) of the bridle and by force sensors inserted bilaterally between the bit(s) and reins. The noseband was adjusted to 2 finger-equivalents using a tightness gauge. Data were recorded for eleven hi...
Akçay S, Gurkok-Tan T, Ekici S.Intense physical activity in endurance horses triggers complex immune and inflammatory responses, yet the molecular mechanisms underlying these adaptations remain unclear. This study investigated immune-related transcriptomic changes following a 160 km endurance ride, focusing on sex-based differences. Using a bioinformatics approach, differentially expressed genes (DEGs), pathways, microRNAs (miRNAs), and transcription factors (TFs) were analyzed before (T0) and after (T1) the ride. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis was conducted to identify key regulatory genes. Pathway enrichment...
Wang J, Ren W, Li Z, Li L, Wang R, Ma S, Zeng Y, Meng J, Yao X.The impact of exercise on human metabolism has been extensively studied, yet limited research exists on the effects of high-intensity racing on equine metabolism. The aim of this study was to screen the effect of a 5000 m race on lipids and proteins in the plasma of Yili horses for the breeding of racehorses. Blood samples were collected from the top three finishers, and lipidomics and proteomics analyses were performed. Lipidomic analysis identified 10 differential lipids. Compared to pre-race levels, phosphatidylethanolamine (18:0/16:0) (PE (18:0/16:0)) and phosphatidylcholine (18:0/18:2) (P...
Science (New York, N.Y.)March 28, 2025
Volume 387, Issue 6741 eadr8589 doi: 10.1126/science.adr8589
Castiglione GM, Chen X, Xu Z, Dbouk NH, Bose AA, Carmona-Berrio D, Chi EE, Zhou L, Boronina TN, Cole RN, Wu S, Liu AD, Liu TD, Lu H, Kalbfleisch T....Horses are among nature's greatest athletes, yet the ancestral molecular adaptations fueling their energy demands are poorly understood. Within a clinically important pathway regulating redox and metabolic homeostasis (NRF2/KEAP1), we discovered an ancient mutation-conserved in all extant equids-that increases mitochondrial respiration while decreasing tissue-damaging oxidative stress. This mutation is a de novo premature opal stop codon in KEAP1 that is translationally recoded into a cysteine through previously unknown mechanisms, producing an R15C mutation in KEAP1 that is more sensitive to ...
Choi Y, Parkin T.Superficial digital flexor (SDF) tendinopathy is one of the most common musculoskeletal diseases in Thoroughbreds and a major cause of retirement from racing among racehorses in South Korea. However, there are no previous epidemiological studies on SDF tendinopathy-related risk factors for racehorses in South Korea. The interventions derived from such a study could reduce the occurrence of SDF tendinopathy and, therefore, extend horses' racing careers. Objective: To identify the risk factors associated with SDF tendinopathy for Thoroughbreds in South Korea. Methods: Retrospective case-control ...
Cygańska AK, Giżewska B, Zdunek K.BACKGROUND Pelvic floor dysfunction (PFD) significantly reduces quality of life. During horseback riding, the movement of the horse's back affects the tension of the pelvic floor muscles. This study aimed to compare reported symptoms of pelvic floor dysfunction in women with past, current, and no history of horse show jumping. MATERIAL AND METHODS We examined 160 women (age 23.69±3.96 years). The cohort group consisted of 74 women training currently and training in the past, and a control group of 86 women not practicing horseback riding. The study used the original questionnaire and the Aust...
Mehrazin H, Sakha M, Safi S.Due to their high specificity and exclusive cardiac myocyte sensitivity, cardiac troponins T and I (cTnT, cTnI) are currently regarded as ideal biomarkers to identify cardiomyocyte damage, myocardial injury, myocardial infarction, and chronic heart failure. In fact, cTnI is considered the most reliable biomarker for diagnosing heart-related issues. This study aimed to investigate the effects of age, gender, and exercise training on serum cTnI levels and various parameters related to the cardiovascular capacity of Caspian horses. For this purpose, 50 adult Caspian horses over 3 years old, both ...
Ohmura H, Ebisuda Y, Takahashi Y, Mukai K.Pre-exercise cooling may prevent exertional heat illness in horses. We hypothesized that pre-exercise cooling before warm-up in a hot environment would not affect performance but would mitigate reductions in body weight and increases in body temperature following exercise. Six trained Thoroughbred horses were studied using a randomized, crossover design with three pre-treatments: 30-min walk on a treadmill at 1.7 m/sec (WALK), 30 min of standing (REST), and a 10-min pre-cooling shower at 26.2 ± 0.8°C (SHOWER). All horses underwent each pre-treatment, followed by a warm-up and main exercise i...
Wang T, Meng J, Wang J, Ren W, Yang X, Adina W, Bao Y, Zeng Y, Yao X.The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between blood lipid levels and the differences in cardiac structure and function of trained and untrained Yili horses as related to exercise performance. We utilized quantitative lipidomics technology to elucidate how the differences in lipid compounds in the blood influenced performance outcomes. Sixteen 18-month-old Yili horses were selected, ten of which received a 15-week training regimen, and six were kept as untrained controls. Cardiac structure and function were assessed by echocardiography, while plasma lipid metabolites were de...
Wang J, Ren W, Li Z, Li L, Wang R, Ma S, Zeng Y, Meng J, Yao X.Equine endurance exercise induces physiological changes that alter metabolism and molecular pathways to maintain balance after intense physical activity. However, the specific regulatory mechanisms remain under debate. Identifying differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differential metabolites (DMs) associated with equine endurance is essential for elucidating these regulatory mechanisms. This study collected blood samples from six Yili horses before and after an 80 km race and conducted transcriptomics and metabolomics analyses, yielding 722 DEGs and 256 DMs. These DEGs were primarily enri...
Carvalho JRG, Sales NAA, Littiere TO, Costa GB, Castro CM, Polisel EEC, Orsi JB, Ramos GV, Santos IFC, Gobatto CA, Manchado-Gobatto FB, Ferraz GC.Several studies have explored alternatives to enhance the performance, health, and safety of sports horses. One promising method involves the use of vibrating platforms (VP), which offer passive exercise stimulation via mechanical oscillations distributed throughout the body. This type of exercise is referred to as whole-body vibration (WBV) and is an emerging strategy for accelerating muscle recovery. This study examined the dynamics of proteins responsible for transporting monocarboxylates (MCT1 and MCT4), and their relationship with lactatemia and acid-base balance in connection with WBV re...
Holbrook T, Hernandez J, McCarrel T, Lester G, Sleeper M, Domenig O, Adin D.The impact of exercise on the classical and alternative renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) pathways has not been studied in horses. Objective: We hypothesized that exercise would activate both RAAS pathways and that endurance exercise would cause more activation of the classical pathway compared to short-duration, high-intensity exercise in horses. Methods: Twenty-five horses (21 client-owned and 4 research) were included in 4 exercise groups (10 Arabians, 50-mile ride [A-E]; 4 thoroughbreds, 1-mile treadmill exercise [TB-TM]; 5 thoroughbreds, 1-1/16th-mile race [TB-R]; and 6 quarter ...
Naydani CJ, Coombs T.Obesity and its comorbidities (e.g. laminitis) are identified as major welfare issues among domestic equids in the United Kingdom (UK) and abroad. Weight-management typically focuses on restricting consumption (e.g. limiting pasture grazing), often facilitated through stabling. This leads to social isolation, prompting other welfare issues. Increased exercise may be a preferable solution for equine obesity, if viable. The aims of this study were to explore horse (Equus caballus) owner perceptions regarding the importance of exercise, and to investigate how exercise provision related to welfare...
Röschmann J, Naef J, Doras C, Gerber V.Equine asthma is a common cause of poor performance, but little is known about its impact on submaximal exercise. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of equine asthma and potential confounding factors on recovery of respiratory rate (RR) and heart rate (HR) after a lunging exercise test. Thirty-seven horses completed a standardized 15 min lunging exercise including HR and RR recording pre- and up to 30 min post-exercise and venous blood lactate measurement. Endoscopy was performed and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cytology was used to categorize horses as controls or asthma...
Navas de Solis C, Ramseyer A, Stefanovski D, Haughan J, Solomon CJ, Kirsch K.Exercising arrhythmias are common in horses participating in eventing competitions. Heart rate variability (HRV) and a specific measure of the degree of heart rate fluctuation (Detrended Fluctuation Analysis alpha1; DFA-α1) are proposed as exercise intensity and fatigue markers. Objective: (1) To describe exercising arrhythmias and DFA-α1 values during 2-4* level eventing cross-country competitions in horses from two European countries; (2) to identify associations between exercising arrhythmias, DFA-α1 and competition results and (3) to evaluate whether markers of the intensity of exercise...
Gotić J, Špelić L, Kuleš J, Horvatić A, Gelemanović A, Ljubić BB, Mrljak V, Bottegaro NB.Long-term aerobic exercise during endurance racing places high demands on equine homeostasis. This study aimed to use proteomic analysis to elucidate complex biological responses during endurance exercise. It was hypothesized that different serum proteome changes would be noted, reflecting physiological processes as a response to race. The serum has been taken before and after an 80 km race from 13 endurance horses. Proteomic analysis of samples has been performed by TMT-based quantitative method. Apolipoprotein and haptoglobin values have been validated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay a...
Yuan X, Yao X, Zeng Y, Wang J, Ren W, Wang T, Li X, Yang L, Yang X, Meng J.Horse racing may cause stress-induced physiological changes and tissue damage in horses, but the changes in miRNA expression, protein expression, and metabolic substances in the plasma exosomes of the horse after racing are still unclear. This study detected miRNA, protein expression, and metabolic substances in the plasma exosomes of horses before and after competition, providing new insights for post-race recovery and care of horses. Methods: Eight three-year-old horses that had undergone training were selected as the research subjects, with four horses that had not competed as the contr...
Littiere TO, Costa GB, Sales NAA, Carvalho JRG, Rodrigues IDM, Ramos GV, Ferraz GC.In humans, there is an ongoing academic discussion about measuring plasma lactate concentration ([La]) during an incremental exercise test (IET) to establish thresholds that can predict the maximal lactate steady state (MLSS). Training studies on horses have utilized the onset of [La] (OBLA), also known as V, the velocity at which the [La] of 4 mM is reached. This study assesses the effectiveness of four methods for estimating the MLSS in teaching horses. Ten teaching horses underwent a single IET to determine four exercise intensity thresholds for predicting MLSS and performed several constan...
Carnevale L, Tagliabue T, Rabbogliatti V, Bona R, Cavallier F.Femoral head ostectomy is considered a salvage procedure in the treatment of chronic coxofemoral joint luxation in small equids. Permanent lameness of varying degrees, largely depending on the animal's weight, and potential contralateral limb deformity may occur. The purpose of this study was to report the outcome of a small equid that, despite undergoing a femoral head ostectomy for a chronic coxofemoral joint luxation, was able to return to being ridden by children and to athletic activities. Methods: An 8-year-old Shetland pony mare (180 kg) was presented for a chronic right hind limb lamen...
Siegers EW, Parmentier JIM, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM, Munsters CCBM, Serra Bragança FM.Appropriate training is essential for equine athletes to improve fitness and ensure welfare. Young Friesian stallions must complete a 10-week training program for acceptance as breeding stallions. Earlier, this training program was demonstrated to induce overtraining. Unassigned: To evaluate how this training program affects stallions' trot locomotion variables in relation to fatigue. Unassigned: Prospective analytical study. Unassigned: 3 or 4 years-old (n = 16) Friesian stallions performed three ridden indoor standardized exercise tests (SETs) in week-1 (SET-I; n = 15), week-6 (SET...
Wright CA, Lawton K, Barnum S, Craig BW, Farwell BR, Blea J, McCook C, Pusterla N.This study aimed to determine if exercise increases the frequency of selected respiratory viruses/bacteria shedding in non-clinical horses using nose wipes. Nose wipes were taken pre- and post- exercise from 133 healthy horses of various ages and disciplines. Wipes were assayed for the presence of selected common (equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV), EHV-4, S. equi spp equi) and commensal (EHV-2, EHV-5, S. equi spp zooepidemicus) respiratory pathogens. The frequency of detection increased significantly (p < 0.05) in the post-exercise wipes for EHV-1, EHV-2, EHV-5, and S. zooepidemicus. EHV-4 and S. equ...
Yang L, Li P, Huang X, Wang C, Zeng Y, Wang J, Yao X, Meng J.Training is essential for enhancing equine athletic performance, but the genetic mechanisms that regulate athletic performance are unknown. Therefore, this paper aims to identify candidate genes and metabolic pathways for the effects of training on equine athletic performance through multi-omics analyses. Methods: The experiment selected 12 untrained trot-type Yili horses, which underwent a 12-week professional training program. Blood samples were collected at rest before training (BT) and after training (AT). Based on their race performance, whole blood and serum samples from 4 horses were ch...
King MR, Colla S.Successful rehabilitation of muscle injury requires a comprehensive understanding of the injury process, healing phases, and resources to be employed. The initial phase is characterized by acute inflammatory signs, followed by the regenerative and remodeling phases. Therapeutic exercises can be utilized in all 3 phases, progressing from isometric exercises to aquatic therapies. The classification and phase of injury and the individual response to the applied therapies will guide the progression of the therapeutic exercises through the rehabilitation program.
Starke SD, Witte TH, May SA, Pfau T.Gait analysis using small sensor units is becoming increasingly popular in the clinical context. In order to segment continuous movement from a defined point of the stride cycle, knowledge about footfall timings is essential. We evaluated the accuracy and precision of foot contact timings of a defined limb determined using an inertial sensor mounted on the pelvis of ten horses during walk and trot at different speeds and in different directions. Foot contact was estimated from vertical velocity events occurring before maximum sensor roll towards the contralateral limb. Foot contact timings mat...
Hodgson DR, McCutcheon LJ, Byrd SK, Brown WS, Bayly WM, Brengelmann GL, Gollnick PD.Horses were exercised at 40, 65, and 90% of their maximum O2 uptake (VO2max) until moderately fatigued (approximately 38, 15, and 9 min, respectively) to assess heat loss through different routes. Approximately 4,232, 3,195, and 2,333 kcal of heat were generated in response to exercise at these intensities. Of this, approximately 7, 16, and 20% remained as stored heat 30 min postexercise. Respiratory heat loss, estimated from the temperature difference between blood in the pulmonary and carotid arteries and the cardiac output, was estimated to be 30, 19, and 23% of the heat produced during exe...
Morrice-West AV, Hitchens PL, Walmsley EA, Stevenson MA, Whitton RC.Musculoskeletal injuries (MSI) in racehorses are commonly due to bone fatigue, a function of the number of cycles (strides) and the magnitude of load applied to the limb. These parameters can be estimated using speed and distance, with greater than 6000 m/month at a gallop (>14 m/s), in combination with canter distances greater than 44,000 m/month, reported to increase fracture risk. Despite their importance, there are limited data on the distances and speeds horses are exposed to during training. Objective: Estimate training volume at different speeds undertaken by Australian Thoroughbr...
Patterson-Kane JC, Firth EC, Goodship AE, Parry DA.To measure collagen fibril crimp angles and lengths as well as collagen fibril mass-average diameters in central and peripheral regions of the superficial digital flexor tendon of wild horses, to ascertain any age-related changes in either region in the absence of imposed galloping exercise. Methods: Measurements from a random cull of wild horses. Methods: Superficial digital flexor tendon samples were taken from 23 wild horses ranging in age from two to ten years. Methods: Horses were divided into 'young' (< 5 years, n = 10), 'middle-aged' (5 to < 10 years, n = 9) and 'ol...
Martin BB, Reef VB, Parente EJ, Sage AD.To determine results for horses undergoing a high-speed treadmill examination, including videoendoscopy of the pharynx and larynx before and during exercise, echocardiography before and after exercise, and electrocardiography before, during, and after exercise, because of poor performance. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: 348 horses. Results: A definitive diagnosis was obtained for 256 (73.5%) horses. One hundred forty-eight horses had dynamic obstruction of the airway during exercise, 33 had clinically important cardiac arrhythmias alone, 22 had a combination of dynamic airway obstructi...
Tamzali Y, Marguet C, Priymenko N, Lyazrhi F.Equine gastric ulcers syndrome (EGUS) prevalence studies are rare in the endurance horse and none has been carried out to date in horses competing at high level. Objective: To determine the prevalence of EGUS in high-level endurance horses. Methods: Thirty endurance horses competing at high level were selected and submitted to 2 gastroscopic examinations. The first gastroscopy was performed during the interseason period, and the second during the competition season within 2-3 days following a ride of 90-160 km. Data related to housing, feeding, training system as well as age, breed and gender ...
Lavoie JP, Cesarini C, Lavoie-Lamoureux A, Moran K, Lutz S, Picandet V, Jean D, Marcoux M.There is limited information relating bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cytology and cytokine messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression in racehorses with inflammatory airway disease (IAD). HYPOTHESIS AND OBJECTIVE: We hypothesize that cytokine expression in BAL cells would correlate with cytology. Thus, we evaluated the mRNA expression of selected cytokines in BAL cells in racehorses with exercise intolerance and lower airway inflammation. Methods: Thirty-one client-owned Standardbred racehorses with exercise intolerance. Methods: Prospective, observational study. Cells were obtained by BAL, an...
Byrd SK, McCutcheon LJ, Hodgson DR, Gollnick PD.This study examined the effects of acute high-intensity exercise on the rate and capacity of Ca2+ uptake and Ca2+-stimulated adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) activity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the reversibility of these effects. Thoroughbred horses were run at maximal O2 uptake on a high-speed treadmill until fatigued. Muscle temperatures and biopsy samples were collected at rest, immediately after exercise, and 30 and 60 min after exercise. Blood samples were collected at rest and 5 min after exercise. Muscle and blood (lactate concentration) were three- and fivefold greater than pre-...
Kawcak CE, Frisbie DD, Werpy NM, Park RD, McIlwraith CW.To identify changes in imaging outcomes in a controlled model of osteoarthritis (OA) vs exercise. Methods: Sixteen 2-year-old horses were randomly assigned to an exercise control (n=8) or an exercise OA (n=8) group. All horses had middle carpal joints arthroscopically explored and an osteochondral fragment was induced in one middle carpal joint of the OA group. All horses were treadmill exercised for the duration of the study (91 days). Clinical, radiographic, nuclear scintigraphic, computed tomographic and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinations were performed and outcomes of these were...
Taylor CR.This paper develops three simple ideas about force development during sustained locomotion which provide some insights into the mechanisms that determine why animals change gait, how fast they can run, and how much metabolic energy they consume. The first idea is that the alternate stretch-shorten pattern of activity of the muscles involved in locomotion allows muscle-tendon units to function as springs, affecting the amount of force a given cross-sectional area of muscle develops, and the metabolic requirements of the muscles for force development. Animals select speeds and stride frequencies...
Physick-Sheard PW, Marlin DJ, Thornhill R, Schroter RC.The pattern of variation in heart rate on a beat-to-beat basis contains information concerning sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) contributions to autonomic nervous system (ANS) modulation of heart rate (HR). In the present study, heart period (RR interval) time series data were collected at rest and during 3 different treadmill exercise protocols from 6 Thoroughbred horses. Frequency and spectral power were determined in 3 frequency bands: very low (VLF) 0-0.01-0.07-< or = 0.5 cycles/beat. Indicators of sympathetic (SNSI = LO/HI) and parasympathetic (PNSI = HI/TOTAL) activity were...
Firth EC.Horses can gallop within hours of birth, and may begin training for athletic competition while still growing. This review cites studies on the effects of exercise on bone, tendon and articular cartilage, as detected by clinical and research imaging techniques, tissue biochemical analysis and microscopy of various kinds. For bone, alterations in bone mineral content, mineral density and the morphology of the mineralized tissue are the most common end-points. Apparent bone density increases slightly after athletic training in the cortex, but substantially in the major load paths of the epiphyses...
Dutto DJ, Hoyt DF, Cogger EA, Wickler SJ.Although the forces required to support the body mass are not elevated when moving up an incline, kinematic studies, in vivo tendon and bone studies and kinetic studies suggest there is a shift in forces from the fore- to the hindlimbs in quadrupeds. However, there are no whole-animal kinetic measurements of incline locomotion. Based on previous related research, we hypothesized that there would be a shift in forces to the hindlimb. The present study measured the force produced by the fore- and hindlimbs of horses while trotting over a range of speeds (2.5 to 5 m s(-1)) on both level and up an...
van Weeren PR, Back W.Musculoskeletal disorders are the most prevalent health problem in aging horses. They are not life threatening, but are painful and an important welfare issue. Chronic joint disease (osteoarthritis) and chronic laminitis are the most prevalent. Treating osteoarthritis in the elderly horse is similar to treating performance horses, but aims at providing a stable situation with optimal comfort. Immediate medical treatment of flare-ups, long-term pain management, and adaptation of exercise and living conditions are the mainstays of treatment. Laminitis in the geriatric horse is related often to p...
Dyson PK, Jackson BF, Pfeiffer DU, Price JS.The first major epidemiological study of injury incidence in the UK flat racing Thoroughbred (TB), published in 1985, found lameness to be the single largest reason for days when horses failed to train. It was considered advisable to ascertain if progress has been made in reducing the problem of musculoskeletal injuries in the intervening period. Objective: To quantify injury incidence and days lost from training by 2- and 3-year-old TBs in UK training yards during 2002 and 2003. Methods: One-hundred-and-eighty-two yearling TBs were recruited at the end of 2001 and daily training and injury re...
Parkin TD, Clegg PD, French NP, Proudman CJ, Riggs CM, Singer ER, Webbon PM, Morgan KL.Fractures below the level of the radius or tibia (distal limb fractures) are the most common cause of equine fatality on UK racecourses; however, little is known about their epidemiology or aetiology. Identification of risk factors could enable intervention strategies to be designed to reduce the number of fatalities. Objective: To identify horse-level risk factors for fatal distal limb fracture in Thoroughbreds on UK racecourses. Methods: A case-control study design was used. Fractures in case horses were confirmed by post mortem examination and 3 matched uninjured controls were selected from...
Smith RK, Garvican ER, Fortier LA.The horse is an attractive model for many human age-related degenerative diseases of the musculoskeletal system because it is a large animal species that both ages and exercises, and develops naturally occurring injuries with many similarities to the human counterpart. It therefore represents an ideal species to use as a 'proving ground' for new therapies, most notably regenerative medicine. Regenerative techniques using cell-based therapies for the treatment of equine musculoskeletal disease have been in use for over a decade. This review article provides a summary overview of the sources, cu...
Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O, Pingwara R, Winnicka A.Physical activity has an influence on a variety of processes in an athlete's organism including the immune system. Unfortunately, there is a lack of studies regarding racehorse immune cells, especially when the horse model is compared to human exercise physiology. The aim of the study was to determine changes in immune cell proliferation, lymphocyte populations, and monocyte functionality in trained and untrained racehorses after exercise. In this study, field data were collected. The cells from 28 racehorses (14 untrained and 14 well-trained) were collected before and after exercise (800 m at...
Rivero JL, Ruz A, Martí-Korff S, Estepa JC, Aguilera-Tejero E, Werkman J, Sobotta M, Lindner A.This study examined the effects of the intensity and duration of exercise on the nature and magnitude of training adaptations in muscle of adolescent (2-3 yr old) racehorses. Six thoroughbreds that had been pretrained for 2 mo performed six consecutive conditioning programs of varying lactate-guided intensities [velocities eliciting blood lactate concentrations of 2.5 mmol/l (v2.5) and 4 mmol/l (v4), respectively] and durations (5, 15, 25 min). Pre- and posttraining gluteus muscle biopsies were analyzed for myosin heavy chain content, fiber-type composition, fiber size, capillarization, and fi...
Redaelli V, Luzi F, Mazzola S, Bariffi GD, Zappaterra M, Nanni Costa L, Padalino B.The aim of this pilot study was to document the effects of endurance training at different intensities on heart rate (HR), blood count, serum cortisol, and maximal temperatures of different body locations, namely eye, crown, pastern pasterns, and muscle (, measured by infrared thermography technique (IRT) in horses trained for endurance. Possible associations among the studied parameters were also investigated. Our hypothesis was that temperature, measured by IRT after endurance training of different intensities would vary depending on the intensity and would be positively correlated with HR...
Munsters CC, van Iwaarden A, van Weeren R, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM.Regular exercise testing in Warmblood sport horses may, as in racing, potentially help to characterise fitness indices in different disciplines and at various competition levels and assist in understanding when a horse is 'fit to compete'. In this review an overview is given of the current state of the art of exercise testing in the Olympic disciplines of eventing, show jumping and dressage, and areas for further development are defined. In event horses, a simple four-step incremental exercise test measuring heart rate (HR), lactate concentration (LA) and velocity (V) is most often used. In dr...
Frisbie DD, McCarthy HE, Archer CW, Barrett MF, McIlwraith CW.We sought to determine the effectiveness of chondroprogenitor cells derived from autologous and allogenic articular cartilage for the repair of cartilage defects in an equine model. Methods: Cartilage defects (15 mm) were created on the medial trochlear ridge of the femur. The following experimental treatments were compared with empty-defect controls: fibrin only, autologous chondroprogenitor cells plus fibrin, and allogenic chondroprogenitor cells plus fibrin (n = 4 or 12 per treatment). Horses underwent strenuous exercise throughout the twelve-month study, and evaluations included lameness (...
Liburt NR, Adams AA, Betancourt A, Horohov DW, McKeever KH.Studies have demonstrated increases in mRNA expression for inflammatory cytokines following exercise in horses and have suggested those markers of inflammation may play a role in delayed onset muscle soreness. However, measurement of mRNA expression in white blood cells is an indirect method. No studies to date have documented the cytokine response to exercise directly in muscle in horses. Objective: This study tested the hypothesis that exercise increases cytokine markers of inflammation in blood and muscle. Methods: Blood and muscle biopsies were obtained from 4 healthy, unfit Standardbred m...
Mach N, Ramayo-Caldas Y, Clark A, Moroldo M, Robert C, Barrey E, López JM, Le Moyec L.Endurance exercise in horses requires adaptive processes involving physiological, biochemical, and cognitive-behavioral responses in an attempt to regain homeostasis. We hypothesized that the identification of the relationships between blood metabolome, transcriptome, and miRNome during endurance exercise in horses could provide significant insights into the molecular response to endurance exercise. For this reason, the serum metabolome and whole-blood transcriptome and miRNome data were obtained from ten horses before and after a 160 km endurance competition. We obtained a global regulatory ...
Balogh N, Gaál T, Ribiczeyné PS, Petri A.Physical exercise in the horse induces a series of normal physiological and biochemical adaptations. Increasing metabolism and oxygen uptake may induce oxidative stress in various organs. The aim of this study was to examine exercise-induced changes in some plasma and RBC biochemical and antioxidant variables in pentathlon horses. Blood samples were taken from 14 horses before, immediately after, and 24 hours after competing in two 1-minute runs of intense exercise over jumps. The peak intensity periods were preceded by a 20-minute warm-up and separated by a 20-minute break. The following plas...
Boden LA, Anderson GA, Charles JA, Morgan KL, Morton JM, Parkin TD, Clarke AF, Slocombe RF.Research into risk factors specific for fatality in flat racing should be focused at a regional level as the risk factors may differ among countries and even regions within countries. Objective: To identify risk factors for fatality of Thoroughbred racehorses in flat starts on all racecourses in Victoria, Australia between 1989 and 2004. Methods: Fatalities comprised all horses that died during or immediately after a flat race or official flat trial, and all horses that were subjected to euthanasia within 24 h of an event in which an injury was sustained. The retrospective study involved 283 c...
Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O, Grzędzicka J, Seń J, Czopowicz M, Żmigrodzka M, Winnicka A, Cywińska A, Carter C.Assuring a high level of animal welfare is a critical aspect of contemporary animal husbandry. Equine athletes begin their careers at a very young age when they are still developing and they are both physically and mentally immature. Lack of scientific knowledge of the stress related to horse racing impedes the development of optimal training programs to attain equilibrium between the best sport results and optimal welfare. This study aimed to determine the influence of the intensity and type of physical activity on peripheral blood cortisol concentration. Thirty untrained Arabians, 9 enduranc...
Anthenill LA, Stover SM, Gardner IA, Hill AE.To assess individual and combined associations of high-speed exercise and horseshoe characteristics with risk of forelimb proximal sesamoid bone fractures and proximal sesamoid bone midbody fractures in Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: 269 deceased Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: A case-control study design was used to compare 121 horses with a fracture of at least 1 of 4 forelimb proximal sesamoid bones (75 horses had a midbody fracture) and 148 horses without a forelimb proximal sesamoid bone fracture. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to evaluate potent...
Parkin TD.This article describes the development of epidemiologic analyses of racetrack injury in racehorses. The risk or rate of fatal and nonfatal injury in racing and training around the world is examined. The focus is on the importance of global collaboration and the identification of modifiable risk factors. In particular, exercise-related risk factors for injury are evaluated and the potential impact of interventions discussed.
Serrano AL, Quiroz-Rothe E, Rivero JL.Twenty-four 4-year-old Andalusian (Spanish breed) stallions were used to examine the plasticity of myosin heavy chain (MHC) phenotype and the metabolic profile in horse skeletal muscle with long-term endurance-exercise training and detraining. Sixteen horses underwent a training programme based on aerobic exercises for 8 months. Afterwards, they were kept in paddocks for 3 months. The remaining eight horses were used as controls. Three gluteus medius muscle biopsy samples were removed at depths of 20, 40 and 60 mm from each horse before (month 0), during (month 3) and after (month 8) training,...
