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Topic:Horse Training
Horse training involves the systematic process of teaching horses specific behaviors and skills to enhance their performance and manageability. This process encompasses a variety of techniques and methods tailored to the individual horse's temperament, age, and intended use, such as riding, racing, or working. Training regimens aim to develop desired traits such as obedience, agility, and endurance while ensuring the horse's physical and mental well-being. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore various aspects of horse training, including methodologies, behavioral outcomes, and the impact on equine welfare and performance.
Anabolic steroids. Anabolic steroids have been employed extensively in equine practice over the past 25 years. Their usefulness is largely dependent on subjective opinions, as only minimal studies have been carried out in horses. Therefore, their use will vary markedly between practitioners depending on their personal experiences and pressures by trainers to use them. They form part of rational therapy in a variety of conditions. In addition to use for increasing muscle mass, they are used to a varying extent in the raising of yearlings and in the training and racing of horses with the view of improving performa...
Fluids, electrolytes, and bicarbonate. In an attempt to enhance performance, primarily by delaying the onset of fatigue, a variety of formulations of fluids, electrolytes, and sodium bicarbonate are administered to performance horses. Some current practices of fluid and electrolyte supplementation are well justified; others have no basis to support their use. In addition, occasional combined administration of certain agents (i.e., furosemide and sodium bicarbonate) can have detrimental effects on performance.
Accumulation of allantoin and uric acid in plasma of exercising trotters. Plasma concentrations of hypoxanthine, uric acid, and allantoin, which are breakdown products of adenine nucleotides, were measured in Standardbred and Finnhorse trotters during and after an exercise test on a high-speed treadmill, after an incremental exercise test performed on a racetrack, and after a racing competition. Fiber-type composition of the middle gluteal muscle and the muscle concentrations of adenine nucleotides and inosine monophosphate were measured after the racetrack test. Changes in the concentration of hypoxanthine were not observed in any of the tests. Peak concentration o...
Equine bronchoalveolar lavage cytology: survey of thoroughbred racehorses in training. Sixty-two Thoroughbred horses aged between 1 and 7 years in training in Sydney had bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) samples collected for cytological examination. All horses, except the yearlings and those with a cough, had raced at the time of the examination and the trainers reported satisfactory performance. Free erythrocytes were found in 73% of samples and haemosiderophages in 90% of the samples, indicating immediate or past occurrences of exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH). Bronchoalveolar fluid from the yearlings contained significantly less (P < 0.05) erythrocytes and haemosi...
Ultrasonographically detected changes in equine superficial digital flexor tendons during the first months of race training. The forelimb superficial digital flexor (SDF) tendons of 6 Thoroughbreds were examined clinically and ultrasonographically during the first 4 months of race training. Sonograms were interpreted clinically and by use of computer-aided analysis. Tendon tissue from all horses was examined histologically at the end of the study. Computer-aided analysis of sonograms of the SDF tendons revealed trends toward an increase in mean cross-sectional area and a decrease in mean echogenicity over time with training. An inverse relation was found between increase in cross-sectional area and decrease in mean ...
Training-induced modifications in cardiorespiratory and ventilatory measurements in thoroughbred horses. The effects of training and detraining on ventilation during a standardised exercise test were investigated. Ten healthy Thoroughbred horses underwent 5 standardised treadmill exercise tests (SET): SET1, at the start of the experimental period; SET2, after 3 weeks acclimatisation; SET3, after 3 week of aerobic training; SET4 after 3 weeks of anaerobic (i.e. interval) training; and SET5, after 3 weeks of detraining. The SETs were carried out in an air-conditioned laboratory on a treadmill inclined at 6 degrees. Respiratory airflow, tidal volume (VT), respiratory frequency (RF) and expired minut...
Effects of bilateral ovariectomy via colpotomy in mares: 23 cases (1984-1990). Postoperative performance and behavioral patterns were investigated retrospectively in 23 client-owned mares after bilateral ovariectomy via colpotomy. The interval from surgery to postoperative inquiries ranged from 9 to 67 months. Information obtained from review of the medical record and client interviews included the reason for ovariectomy, postoperative complications, problems identified by owners after discharge of the mare from the hospital, postoperative level of athletic performance, postoperative signs of estrus, and overall owner satisfaction. Reasons given by owners for having mare...
Muscle fiber type composition and fiber size in successfully and unsuccessfully endurance-raced horses. Triplicate biopsies from three different depths of the gluteus medius muscle were obtained in 36 endurance-raced horses, aged 8.42 +/- 2.85 yr. Twenty of the horses were considered excellent endurance performers according to the mean speed of their three fastest records in endurance events for the past 2 or 3 years, whereas 16 were moderate performers, with a mean racing speed < 12.5 km/h (in 120- to 180-km endurance rides), < 14 km/h (in 80- to 120-km endurance rides), or < 13.5 km/h (in 40- to 60-km endurance rides). Significant differences in muscle fiber type composition and fiber...
Correlation of racing performance with blood lactate and heart rate after exercise in thoroughbred horses. At 2 and 5 mins after an 800-m gallop, venous blood was collected from 26 Thoroughbred racehorses for measurement of blood lactate concentration, packed cell volume (PCV) and haemoglobin concentration. In addition, 14 racehorses were given a strenuous submaximal treadmill exercise test. Heart rates during and after exercise at 10 m/sec on a treadmill inclined at 5 degrees were recorded. Blood samples at 2 and 5 mins after exercise were used to measure PCV, blood and plasma lactate and ammonia concentrations. Results of each exercise test were compared with the retrospective performance of hors...
Detection of bicarbonate administration (milkshake) in standardbred horses. Total plasma carbon dioxide (TCO2) concentrations were measured in Standardbred horses to determine criteria to discriminate between normal horses and horses with excessive TCO2 concentrations on raceday. TCO2 concentrations from stabled horses were distributed normally with a mean of 30.2 mmol/L and a standard deviation of 1.2 (n = 192) while pre-race TCO2 concentrations were not normally distributed. The results indicate that about 50 horses per million are likely to have TCO2 concentrations greater than or equal to 35 mmol/L and that it is extremely unlikely that a normal horse would have a...
Effect of a booster vaccination against influenza and equine herpes virus on cardio-respiratory adjustments to strenuous exercise and training in thoroughbred horses. This study was conducted in order to assess whether exercise- and training-induced cardio-respiratory adjustments are modified during the 10-day period which follows a booster vaccination with an oily adjuvanted inactivated vaccine against influenza and equine herpesvirus-1 (Equiffa). Nine healthy vaccinated thoroughbred horses were used. Six were revaccinated and three were kept as control. All the horses completed a standardised exercise test (SET) that was repeated 4 times, i.e. 10 (SET1) and 2 (SET2) days before revaccination, and 2 (SET3) and 10 (SET4) days after revaccination. During the...
Stress failure of pulmonary capillaries in racehorses with exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage. Bleeding into the lungs in thoroughbreds is extremely common; there is evidence that it occurs in essentially all horses in training. However, the mechanism is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH) is caused by stress failure of pulmonary capillaries. Three thoroughbreds with known EIPH were galloped on a treadmill, and after the horses were killed with intravenous barbiturate the lungs were removed, inflated, and fixed for electron microscopy. Ultrastructural studies showed evidence of stress failure of pulmonary capillaries, including disruptions...
Radiographic and microscopic correlation of diffuse interstitial and bronchointerstitial pulmonary patterns in the caudodorsal lung of adult thoroughbred horses in race training. Complete thoracic radiographic examinations were performed on 7 horses ranging in age from 24 to 60 months, followed by in-situ lung fixation. Radiographs were examined by 3 radiologists for the presence, degree and distribution of generalised pulmonary patterns within a region of interest in the caudodorsal lung. Pulmonary tissue was obtained from 12 sites within a designated volume of interest in the caudodorsal lung, corresponding to the area of interest evaluated radiographically, and examined for the presence, character and severity of microscopic lesions. Radiographic findings within the...
Respiratory and cardiovascular adjustments during exercise of increasing intensity and during recovery in thoroughbred racehorses. A new design of flowmeter is described and used in a comprehensive study of the respiratory and cardiovascular adjustments that occur during a standardised exercise test in Thoroughbred horses. The flowmeter system and associated lightweight, fibreglass mask (total mass, 0.7 kg) have a maximum dead space of 500 ml and negligible resistance to airflow. They have no systematic effect on blood gases and, together with a rapidly responding mass spectrometer, enable an accurate computation of gas exchange to be performed together with breath-by-breath determination of other respiratory variables. A...
Generalization of a tactile stimulus in horses. Using horses, we investigated the control of operant behavior by a tactile stimulus (the training stimulus) and the generalization of behavior to six other similar test stimuli. In a stall, the experimenters mounted a response panel in the doorway. Located on this panel were a response lever and a grain dispenser. The experimenters secured a tactile-stimulus belt to the horse's back. The stimulus belt was constructed by mounting seven solenoids along a piece of burlap in a manner that allowed each to provide the delivery of a tactile stimulus, a repetitive light tapping, at different locations...
Instrumentation of exercising thoroughbreds to determine blood gas tensions and acid-base status. A device was constructed of easily obtained medical supplies, and hardware and could be used to obtain multiple arterial samples when manually triggered. The right carotid arteries in five normal horses were surgically elevated, thereby permitting percutaneous cannulation. Each horse was galloped on a 1.6-km test track at approximately 500 m/min, and the rider triggered the mechanism at each 0.4-km mark. Each horse underwent 10 test gallops, and a mean and standard error was determined for each sampling mark including preexercise and postexercise samples. The results indicated that horses ridd...
Racing performance of standardbreds after conservative and surgical treatment for tarsocrural osteochondrosis. A retrospective study of 114 Standardbred horses diagnosed with osteochondrosis (OC) of the cranial intermediate ridge of the distal tibia was carried out, and their subsequent race records were compared with 456 control horses. Each OC-affected horse was compared with 4 horses randomly selected from a list of horses matched to it by year of birth, sex and sire. The horses with OC were treated by arthroscopic removal of osteochondral fragments (N = 58) or managed conservatively (N = 56). The clinical presentation of these two groups was similar, although joint effusion was a more common presen...
Development of conditioning programs for dressage horses based on time-motion analysis of competitions. The time-motion characteristics of Canadian basic- and medium-level dressage competitions are described, and the results are applied in formulating sport-specific conditioning programs. One competition was analyzed at the six levels from basic 1 to medium 3. Each test was divided into a series of sequences based on the type and speed of activity. The durations of the sequences were measured from videotapes. The basic-level tests had fewer sequences, and they were shorter in distance and duration than the medium tests (P < 0.10), but the average speed did not differ between the two levels. I...
[M-mode echocardiography in dressage horses, class S jumping horses and untrained horses]. Heart structures of 45 warmblooded horses were measured by M-mode-echocardiography. The current training level of 15 dressage horses (group I) and 15 show-jumping horses (group II) was category "S". In the third group were 15 untrained horses. Four standardized transducer positions were determined for the m-mode echobeam, calibrated according to the two-dimensional real time technique. End systolic and end diastolic diameters of left ventricle, right ventricle, aortic root, interventricular septum and left ventricular wall, as well as motion pattern of heart wall, mitral valve and aortic valve...
Effects of sodium bicarbonate on cardiorespiratory measurements and exercise capacity in thoroughbred horses. We examined the effects of sodium bicarbonate in 6 Thoroughbred horses during submaximal and maximal treadmill exercise. Cardiorespiratory function was assessed together with the effect on exercise capacity by determining the run time to fatigue at maximal intensities. To discriminate between sodium bicarbonate's alkalinising effects and the fluid shifts that could result from the high osmotic load, we administered an equimolar solution of sodium chloride as a control. The horses were given sodium bicarbonate (1 g/kg bwt) or an equivalent number of moles of sodium chloride by nasogastric tube....
Use of ventral cervical stabilization for treatment of a suspected articular facet fracture in a horse. A 3-year-old Thoroughbred filly examined because of poor performance after a fall was found to be ataxic. Radiography revealed a linear defect in the right dorsal cranial articular facet of the fifth cervical vertebra. The defect was thought to be a fracture or a developmental defect. Arthrodesis and stabilization were achieved by ventral implantation of a Bagby basket in the articulation between the fourth and fifth cervical vertebrae. The ataxia resolved within 4 months, and the filly was able to resume full race training.
Alterations of fluid and electrolyte balance in thoroughbred racehorses following strenuous exercise during training. Alterations of acid-base status, and fluid and electrolyte balance subsequent to exercise in Thoroughbred racehorses in North America have not been well-characterized. Des-cribed here are the results of an observational study conducted to characterize changes in fluid and electrolytes following strenuous exercise of 16 Thoroughbreds under routine training conditions. Changes following strenuous exercise were determined for the following variables: serum concentrations of sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl) and protein; pH of blood; osmolality of plasma and urine; body weight; and, fracti...
Comparison of the damping effect of different shoeing by the measurement of hoof acceleration. The purpose of this study was to compare the damping effect of 16 types of shoeing by measuring hoof acceleration parameters on two trotting horses. At impact, maximal deceleration had extreme values such as 188 m/s2 (+/- 55) for the most damping combination (p < 0.01) and 746 m/s2 (+/- 14) for the steel shoe (mean = 551 m/s2 +/- 125). After the shock, the hoof was exposed to a mean vibrating acceleration at 418 Hz (+/- 84) which was progressively damped in 37.3 ms (+/- 10.5). According to these results, the damping ability of different farriery products significantly reduces (p < 0.05) ...
A preliminary study of transitions between the walk and trot in dressage horses. The object of this study was to determine the limb support sequence during the transitions from walk to trot and from trot to walk in dressage horses under saddle and to test the null hypothesis that the limb support sequence during the transitions is not related to the level of training. Sixteen dressage horses training at novice to FEI Grand Prix level were videotaped performing an average of 9 transitions each from walk to trot and from trot to walk. The 30-Hz videotapes were viewed in slow motion, and based on the limb support sequence the transitions were categorized into two types. In ty...
Kinematics of the standardbred trotter measured at 6, 7, 8 and 9 m/s on a treadmill, before and after 5 months of prerace training. A kinematic study was performed on a group of 8 Standardbred stallions. Recordings were done using a modified CODA-3 optoelectronic kinematic analysis system with the horses running on a treadmill at speeds of 6, 7, 8, or 9 m/s. Linear and temporal gait characteristics, joint angle diagrams and the trajectories of the hoof in a plane perpendicular to the direction of movement were studied. Two consecutive recording sessions were held at an age of 21-23 months, and a third was held 5 months later after an intensive training period. Joint angle diagrams appeared to show a similar pattern for all...
The correlation of running ability and physiological variables in thoroughbred racehorses. The running abilities of 25 Thoroughbred racehorses were measured at distances of 1200, 1600 and 20000 m. Various physiological variables were measured subsequently on the treadmill and correlated with running speed. There was a negative correlation for running speed with the velocity (VLa4) and work rate (WLa4) at which blood lactate reaches a steady-state concentration of 4 mmol/litre and a positive correlation with peak plasma lactate, suggesting that plasma lactate concentrations of faster horses rise more rapidly and to higher levels than do those of slower horses. The correlation between...
Stride characteristics of overground versus treadmill locomotion in the saddle horse. The purpose of this study was to compare the velocity-dependent changes in stride length and stride frequency of horses performing the same incremental exercise test first on a track with a rider and then on a treadmill with a 0 and 3.5% slope successively. Seven French saddle horses undertook the exercise test which consisted of 5 stages of increasing speed for 3 min each with 1 min rest between each stage (1.6, 4.2, 8.3, 9.2 and 10 m/s). The horses were recorded by use of a video camera, and the tapes were analysed with regard to gait parameters. At 1.6, 8.3, 9.2 and 10 m/s, stride frequenci...
