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Topic:Joint Health
Joint health in horses involves the study of anatomical structures such as cartilage, synovial fluid, ligaments, and bones that contribute to the function and mobility of equine joints. Research in this area focuses on understanding the physiology of equine joints, the mechanisms of joint disorders, and the effects of wear and tear over time. Common joint issues in horses include osteoarthritis, synovitis, and joint effusion, which can impact performance and quality of life. Diagnostic techniques often involve imaging, synovial fluid analysis, and clinical evaluation to assess joint condition. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, pathology, diagnostics, and therapeutic approaches related to joint health in horses.
Development of osteochondrosis in Lusitano foals: a radiographic study. This study aimed to detect, by radiographic examination, the evolution of osteochondral lesions in the tarsocrural and femoropatellar joints of Lusitano foals. Within 1 month of age, 76.08% of foals had radiographic signs of osteochondrosis, but only 16.20% had lesions at 18 months. The radiographic signs resolved by 5 mo of age in most foals, but some cases that involved either joint, were not resolved until 12 mo of age. It is thought that the "age of no return" is 5 mo for the tarsocrural and 8 mo for the femoropatellar joint but this study demonstrated regression of osteochondral lesions i...
Effect of water depth on amount of flexion and extension of joints of the distal aspects of the limbs in healthy horses walking on an underwater treadmill. To determine the maximum amount of flexion and extension of the carpal, tarsal, metacarpophalangeal, and metatarsophalangeal joints and the percentage duration of the stance and swing phases of the stride for horses walking on an underwater treadmill in various water depths. Methods: 9 healthy adult horses. Methods: Zinc oxide markers were placed on the forelimbs and hind limbs of the horses. Video was recorded of horses walking (0.9 m/s) on an underwater treadmill during baseline conditions (< 1 cm of water) or in various amounts of water (level of the metatarsophalangeal, tarsal, and stif...
Synovial distribution of “systemically” administered acetylsalicylic acid in the isolated perfused equine distal limb. This study investigated synovial concentrations of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) and its metabolite salicylic acid (SA) in the equine fetlock joint following systemic administration of ASA. Salicylates were chosen because SA is the only nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug for which threshold levels exist for plasma and urine in equine sports. To avoid animal experiments, the study was conducted using an ex vivo model of the isolated perfused equine distal limb in combination with plasma concentrations obtained from literature.Salicylate concentrations in the joint were determined using microdialy...
Influence of an intra-articular lipopolysaccharide challenge on markers of inflammation and cartilage metabolism in young horses. Nineteen weanling Quarter Horses (225 to 380 kg) were used in a randomized complete block design to investigate the effects of intra-articular lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce acute joint inflammation in young horses. Horses were blocked by age, BW, and sex and were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatments for a 35-d experiment. Treatments included intra-articular injection of 0.25 ng (n = 7) or 0.50 ng (n = 6) of LPS obtained from Escherichia coli O55:B5 or sterile lactated Ringer's solution (n = 6; control) into the radial carpal joint. Synovial fluid was obtained at preinjection h 0 and 2, ...
Effects of repeated intra-articular administration of amikacin on serum amyloid A, total protein and nucleated cell count in synovial fluid from healthy horses. Serum amyloid A (SAA) in synovial fluid has recently been used as a marker for septic arthritis in horses but the effects of repeated intra-articular (IA) administration of amikacin on synovial SAA concentrations are unknown. Objective: To report the effect of repeated IA administration of amikacin on SAA, total protein (TP), nucleated cell count (NCC) and differential NCC in synovial fluid of healthy equine joints. Methods: A controlled, 2 period crossover study was performed on 5 clinically healthy horses. Each intercarpal joint received one of 2 treatments every 48 h for 5 consecutive times...
Non-terminal animal model of post-traumatic osteoarthritis induced by acute joint injury. Develop a non-terminal animal model of acute joint injury that demonstrates clinical and morphological evidence of early post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). Methods: An osteochondral (OC) fragment was created arthroscopically in one metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint of 11 horses and the contralateral joint was sham operated. Eleven additional horses served as unoperated controls. Every 2 weeks, force plate analysis, flexion response, joint circumference, and synovial effusion scores were recorded. At weeks 0 and 16, radiographs (all horses) and arthroscopic videos (OC injured and sham joints) ...
Postoperative septic arthritis after elective equine arthroscopy without antimicrobial prophylaxis. To determine the frequency of postoperative septic arthritis after elective arthroscopy in the absence of prophylactic antimicrobial therapy and to report complication rate of 444 consecutive equine arthroscopies. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Horses (n = 444). Methods: Medical records of 444 consecutive elective equine arthroscopies (2008-2010) were reviewed. Horses that had septic arthritis on admission or those admitted for tenoscopy and bursoscopy, or had arthroscopic assisted internal fracture fixation were not included. Age and sex of horse, duration of anesthesia, joint e...
Synoviocytes protect cartilage from the effects of injury in vitro. It is well documented that osteoarthritis (OA) can develop following traumatic joint injury and is the leading cause of lameness and subsequent wastage of equine athletes. Although much research of injury induced OA has focused on cartilage, OA is a disease that affects the whole joint organ. Methods: In this study, we investigated the impact of synovial cells on the progression of an OA phenotype in injured articular cartilage. Injured and control cartilage were cultured in the presence of synoviocytes extracted from normal equine synovium. Synoviocytes and cartilage were evaluated for catabo...
Do developmental orthopaedic disorders influence future jumping performances in Warmblood stallions? Few reports are available on the relationship between developmental orthopaedic diseases (DOD) and future performances in Warmblood horses. Objective: To investigate the relationship between performance and the presence of DOD lesions. Methods: Records of Warmblood stallions for which radiographic and performance data were available were collected. Showjumping performances were expressed as scores derived from the final ranking of horses in each competition. These scores are available in an established performance database. The relationship between radiographic findings and both performance sc...
Genome-wide association study of osteochondrosis in the tarsocrural joint of Dutch Warmblood horses identifies susceptibility loci on chromosomes 3 and 10. Equine osteochondrosis is a developmental joint disease that is a significant source of morbidity affecting multiple breeds of horse. The genetic variants underlying osteochondrosis susceptibility have not been established. Here, we describe the results of a genome-wide association study of osteochondrosis using 90 cases and 111 controls from a population of Dutch Warmblood horses. We report putative associations between osteochondrosis and loci on chromosome 3 (BIEC2-808543; P = 5.03 × 10(-7) ) and chromosome 10 (BIEC2-121323; P = 2.62 × 10(-7) ).
Exercise affects joint injury risk in young Thoroughbreds in training. The aim of this study was to identify exercise-related risk factors for carpal and metacarpo- and metatarso-phalangeal (MCP/MTP) joint injury occurrence in young Thoroughbreds in flat race training. In a 2-year prospective cohort study, daily exercise and joint injury data were collected from horses in 13 training yards in England. Four injury categories were defined: (1) localised to a carpal or MCP/MTP joint based on clinical examination and/or use of diagnostic analgesia with no diagnostic imaging performed; (2) localised to a carpal or MCP/MTP joint with no abnormalities detected on diagno...
Retrospective evaluation of facilitated pastern ankylosis using intra-articular ethanol injections: 34 cases (2006-2012). While surgical arthrodesis is the treatment of choice for osteoarthritis of the proximal interphalangeal joint, some clients are unable to pursue surgery due to costs. A more economical technique was sought using intra-articular ethyl alcohol injections to facilitate ankylosis. Objective: To describe the technique and outcome of intra-articular ethyl alcohol injections for facilitated ankylosis of proximal interphalangeal joints with osteoarthritis. Methods: As a retrospective case series, the medical records (2006-2012) of clinical cases diagnosed with proximal interphalangeal joint osteoarth...
An experimental study to compare inflammatory response due to liquid or gas joint distension in horses submitted to arthroscopy. To assess comparatively the inflammatory response that follows CO(2) or Ringer's lactate joint capsular distension of horses submitted to experimental arthroscopy Methods: Each animal was submitted to a bilateral tarsocrural arthroscopy employing gas distention in one joint and fluid distention in the contralateral joint. Synovial fluid was evaluated at 0, six, 12, 24 and 48 hours post-operative. Results: The use of CO(2) for arthroscopy causes an acute and mild synovitis alike to the liquid capsular distension, showing similar synovial fluid increase of leukocytes, TP, and TNF-α. Although sy...
Equine articular synovial cysts: 16 cases. To report the clinical findings, diagnosis, treatment and outcome of equine patients with articular synovial cysts. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Horses (n = 16) with articular synovial cysts. Methods: Horses diagnosed with articular synovial cysts (1988-2009) at 2 veterinary teaching hospitals were studied. Signalment, history, clinical signs, diagnostic methods and treatment were retrieved and telephone follow-up was obtained. Results: Sixteen horses with articular synovial cysts were identified. Lameness was the reason for referral in most (n = 9) horses. Diagnosis was based ...
Soft tissue injuries of the tarsocrural joint: a retrospective analysis of 30 cases evaluated arthroscopically. Intra-articular soft tissue injuries of the equine tarsocrural joint have been poorly defined. Methods: All horses that underwent arthroscopic surgery of a tarsocrural joint over a 10 year period were identified. Those with primary intra-articular soft tissue injuries were selected for inclusion and the cases evaluated retrospectively. Results: Two hundred and eighty-one horses underwent tarsocrural joint arthroscopy during the study period, 30 of which met the inclusion criteria (30 joints). A combination of soft tissue lesions was more common than injury to a single structure. Injuries invol...
Equine myeloperoxidase: a novel biomarker in synovial fluid for the diagnosis of infection. Equine joint infection is a life-threatening disorder, and confirmation of the diagnosis can be difficult. Synovial fluid biomarkers may assist the discrimination between infectious and noninfectious joint disease. Objective: This study investigates whether the immunological detection of total and enzymatically active myeloperoxidase (MPO) assists the diagnosis of joint infection in horses. Methods: The following 4 sample groups were included: healthy; osteochondritis dissecans (OCD); traumatic synovitis; and culture-confirmed infected joints. Synovial fluid was analysed for total MPO by a hor...
Synovial folds in equine articular process joints. Cervical synovial folds have been suggested as a potential cause of neck pain in humans. Little is known about the extent and characteristics of cervical synovial folds in horses. Objective: The objective of this explorative study was to determine the frequency of synovial folds in equine cervical articular process joints and to provide a characterisation of the size and morphology of the synovial folds. Methods: Equine cervical articular process joints from 6 horses were included in the study, ranging from cervical vertebra 2 (C2) to cervical vertebra 7 (C7) bilaterally. The articular process...
The horse as a model of naturally occurring osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis (OA) is an important cause of pain, disability and economic loss in humans, and is similarly important in the horse. Recent knowledge on post-traumatic OA has suggested opportunities for early intervention, but it is difficult to identify the appropriate time of these interventions. The horse provides two useful mechanisms to answer these questions: 1) extensive experience with clinical OA in horses; and 2) use of a consistently predictable model of OA that can help study early pathobiological events, define targets for therapeutic intervention and then test these putative thera...
Computed tomographic arthrography of the equine stifle joint. Computed tomographic arthrography is an imaging technique used for the evaluation of the internal structures of a joint, especially the soft tissues and subchondral bone defects that may communicate with the joint space. Clinical indications, technical aspects, principles of image interpretation, and advantages and disadvantages of this imaging technique for the evaluation of the equine stifle joint are discussed in this article.
The histological appearance of the proximal aspect of the dorsal condylar sagittal ridge of the third metacarpal and metatarsal bone in young warmblood horses: normal appearance and correlation with detected radiographic variations. The objective of this study is to describe the normal histological appearance of the dorsoproximal aspect of the sagittal ridge of the third metacarpal/metatarsal bone in young Warmblood horses, and to compare it to the different radiographic variations (irregular, indentation, lucency, notch) described at this level. A total of 25 metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joints of 12 Warmblood horses were used. Five samples of each radiographically described group were selected for histological processing. Each category was compared with the normal control group. Each group showed a bone cortex, covered...
In vivo effects of a single intra-articular injection of 2% lidocaine or 0.5% bupivacaine on articular cartilage of normal horses. To assess the effects of an intra-articular (IA) lidocaine or bupivacaine injection on synovial fluid (SF) biomarkers of cartilage metabolism. Methods: Experimental. Methods: Horses (n = 6). Methods: The study had 2 components, each with an identical design: the first arm assessed the effects of bupivacaine (0.5%) IA in the intercarpal joints and, after a 2-week washout period, the second was conducted to evaluate the effects of IA lidocaine (2%) in the tarsocrural joints. The mares were randomly assigned to receive the test local anesthetic in the target joint or the placebo (0.9% NaCl) in th...
Upregulation of articular synovial membrane μ-opioid-like receptors in an acute equine synovitis model. Intra-articular injection of opioids provides analgesia in painful equine joints and μ-opioid receptors (MORs) have been demonstrated in equine synovial membranes. The aim of this study was to determine whether acute inflammatory conditions will lead to up-regulation of MOR in equine synovial membranes and whether anti-inflammatory treatment can prevent any such upregulation. In a two-period, blinded, placebo-controlled randomised cross-over design, lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 1.0 ng) was injected into the left or right middle carpal joint of seven healthy ponies. Arthroscopy and synovial membra...
The isolated perfused equine distal limb as an ex vivo model for pharmacokinetic studies. Even though intra-articular injections play an important role in the treatment of joint-related lameness in horses, little is known about pharmacokinetic properties of substances used. Therefore, an ex vivo model for pharmacokinetic studies was developed using distal forelimbs of slaughtered horses. The extremity was perfused with gassed Tyrode solution for up to 8 h. Tissue viability was confirmed by measurements of glucose consumption, lactate production, and lactate dehydrogenase activity in the perfusate. Standard criteria for tissue viability had been determined in preliminary experiments...
Evaluation of the inflammatory response in experimentally induced synovitis in the horse: a comparison of recombinant equine interleukin 1 beta and lipopolysaccharide. To compare two transient models of synovitis-osteoarthritis (OA) in horses by characterizing biological changes in synovial fluid and joint tissue. Methods: Twelve skeletally mature mares were utilized in a block design. Synovitis was induced by an intra-articular injection of 100 ng recombinant equine interleukin 1 beta (reIL-1β) or 0.5 ng lipopolysaccharide (LPS) into a middle carpal joint in 1 ml volumes. One ml of saline was injected into the contra-lateral control joint. Lameness evaluations were conducted through post-injection hour (PIH) 8 (at which time arthroscopic removal of syno...
A descriptive study of the equine proximal interphalangeal joint using magnetic resonance imaging, contrast arthrography, and arthroscopy. To describe regions of the thoracic and pelvic limb proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joints that are arthroscopically accessible and identify soft tissue structures that should be avoided during arthroscope and instrument placement. Methods: Experimental ex vivo descriptive study. Methods: Horses (n = 15). Methods: Cadaver limbs (n = 36) were used for anatomic modeling, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with MRI-compatible needles, computed tomography with contrast arthrography, and arthroscopy of the PIP joint. Two arthroscopic approaches to the dorsal joint pouch were compared. Results: With ar...
Influence of serotype, cell type, tissue composition, and time after inoculation on gene expression in recombinant adeno-associated viral vector-transduced equine joint tissues. To evaluate transduction efficiency of gene therapy for treatment of osteoarthritis in horses. Methods: Cartilage and synovial tissues were aseptically collected from the stifle joints of 3 Thoroughbreds; horses were 3, 7, and 12 years old and free from sepsis and long-term drug treatment and were euthanized for reasons unrelated to joint disease. Methods: Gene transfer experiments were performed with 8 recombinant adeno-associated viral vector (rAAV) serotypes in monolayer-cultured equine chondrocytes, synovial cells, and mesenchymal stromal cells and in cartilage and synovial tissues. Result...
Effects of intra-articular sodium pentosan polysulfate and glucosamine on the cytology, total protein concentration and viscosity of synovial fluid in horses. Evaluate synovial fluid cytology, total protein concentration and viscosity after intra-articular administration of combined pentosan polysulfate and glucosamine in horses. Methods: Ten adult Standardbred horses had each carpal joint (n = 20) randomly assigned to one of two treatments: control (5 mL saline) or treated (pentosan polysulfate and glucosamine). All horses received an intra-articular injection every 7 days for 3 weeks and synovial fluid samples were collected on days 1 (baseline), 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 14, 15, 16 and 21. Synovial fluid variables measured included total protein concentrati...
Indwelling cephalic or saphenous vein catheter use for regional limb perfusion in 44 horses with synovial injury involving the distal aspect of the limb. To describe indwelling cephalic or saphenous vein catheter use for intravenous regional limb perfusion (ID-IV-RLP) to treat horses with synovial injury (contamination/infection) of the distal aspect of the limb. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Horses (n = 44; 45 limbs) treated with proximal ID-IV-RLP. Methods: Horses had ID-IV-RLP using a cephalic (21 limbs) or saphenous (24 limbs) vein. Amikacin was the most frequently used antibiotic. Number of perfusions ranged from 3 to 21 (median 7). A cast was applied to 14 injured limbs (1 tube cast, 1 full-limb cast, 2 foot casts, and 10 h...
