Locomotion in horses refers to the movement mechanisms that enable horses to walk, trot, canter, and gallop. It involves a complex interplay of the musculoskeletal and nervous systems, allowing for efficient and coordinated movement. Studies on equine locomotion often focus on gait analysis, biomechanics, and the impact of various factors such as conformation, training, and surface conditions on movement. Research in this area contributes to understanding performance, diagnosing lameness, and improving rehabilitation practices. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the biomechanics, gait patterns, and factors influencing locomotion in horses.
Warner SM, Koch TO, Pfau T.Assessing back movement is an important part of clinical examination in the horse and objective assessment tools allow for evaluating success of treatment. Objective: Accuracy and consistency of inertial sensor measurements for quantification of back movement and movement symmetry during over ground locomotion were assessed; sensor measurements were compared to optical motion capture (mocap) and consistency of measurements focusing on movement symmetry was measured. Methods: Six nonlame horses were trotted in hand with synchronised mocap and inertial sensor data collection (landmarks: T6, T10,...
Goff L, Van Weeren PR, Jeffcott L, Condie P, McGowan C.Information regarding movement at the ilium and sacrum in nonlame horses during normal gait may assist in understanding the biomechanics of the equine sacroiliac joint. Objective: To determine the amount and direction of motion at the ilium and sacrum using 3D orientation sensors during walk and trot in sound Thoroughbreds. To compare results from sensors fixed to the skin with results from sensors fixed to bone-implanted pins. Methods: Three 3D wireless orientation sensors were mounted to the skin over the tuber sacrale (TS) and sacrum of 6 horses and motion at the ilium and sacrum was record...
Hernlund E, Egenvall A, Roepstorff L.Biomechanical events of the distal limb during the landing phase of a jump have been proposed to be risk factors for injury, indicating need for further characterisation of the landing and the hoof-surface interaction. This is essential also for valid testing of arena surfaces when simulating actual conditions. Objective: To investigate the hoof landing characteristics for different limbs of elite showjumping horses during the landing phase when jumping 1.30-1.50 m competition fences on 2 different arena surfaces. Methods: A single, fixed high speed camera (1000 frames/s) was aimed at landing ...
Latif SN, Von Peinen K, Wiestner T, Bitschnau C, Renk B, Weishaupt MA.To a large extent the success of a racehorse depends on effective and health preserving training methods. An important issue is the prevention of back pain. The influence of different types of training saddles (normal tree: S(A), treeless: S(B), flexible tree: S(C)) on the saddle pressure patterns in racehorses have not previously been investigated. It is commonly assumed that S(A) limits the motion of the back especially in the lower thoracic region during gallop. Objective: S(A) produces higher pressures in the caudal part of the saddle at trot (rising trot), canter and gallop (both in a joc...
von Peinen K, Wiestner T, von Rechenberg B, Weishaupt MA.Similar to human decubitus ulcers, local high pressure points from ill-fitting saddles induce perfusion disturbances of different degrees resulting in tissue hypoxia and alteration in sweat production. Objective: To relate the different clinical manifestations of saddle sores to the magnitude of saddle pressures at the location of the withers. Methods: Sixteen horses with dry spots after exercise (Group A) and 7 cases presented with acute clinical signs of saddle pressure in the withers area (Group B) were compared with a control group of 16 sound horses with well fitting saddles (Group C). Al...
de Cocq P, Mooren M, Dortmans A, van Weeren PR, Timmerman M, Muller M, Van Leeuwen JL.In the equestrian world it is assumed that riders use changes in weight distribution and leg forces as important instruments to give horses directions about speed and direction of movement. However, the changes of these forces have never been quantified. Objective: To investigate the distribution of normal forces (perpendicular to surface) underneath the saddle and of normal forces exerted by the rider's legs during lateral movements. Methods: Eleven riders performed 3 different exercises: riding straight ahead, shoulder-in and travers at trot. Three saddle force systems were used simultaneous...
Chateau H, Holden L, Robin D, Falala S, Pourcelot P, Estoup P, Denoix JM, Crevier-Denoix N.Sandy beaches are often considered good training surfaces for trotter horses. However, their biomechanical effects on locomotion are insufficiently documented. Events at hoof impact have mostly been studied under laboratory conditions with accelerometers, but there is lack of data (acceleration, force, movement) on events occurring under every day practical conditions in the field. Objective: To investigate hoof landing and stride parameters on different tracks (from wet to dry) of a sand beach and on an asphalt road. Methods: The right front hoof of 4 trotter horses was equipped with a triaxi...
Takahashi T, Yoshihara E, Mukai K, Ohmura H, Hiraga A.Although the main cause of injury to the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) is assumed to be high intensity loading of the tendon, to date the forces exerted on the SDFT during cantering have never been measured. Objective: To measure the force exerted on the SDFT at walk, trot and canter on a treadmill. Methods: Arthroscopically implantable force probes (AIFP) were implanted in the SDFT of the left and right forelimbs of 8 Thoroughbred horses (480-565 kg). The output of the AIFP was calibrated using the SDFT force calculated by inverse dynamics and an in vitro model of the lower forelim...
Clayton HM, Kaiser LJ, de Pue B, Kaiser L.We compared anteroposterior and mediolateral range of motion and velocity of the center of pressure (COP) on the horse's back between riders without disabilities and riders with cerebral palsy. An electronic pressure mat was used to track COP movements beneath the saddle in 4 riders without disabilities and 4 riders with cerebral palsy. Comparisons between rider groups were made using the Mann-Whitney test (p < .05). The two rider groups differed significantly in anteroposterior range of COP motion, mediolateral range of COP motion, and mediolateral COP velocity. Anteroposterior COP velocit...
Minetti AE, Cisotti C, Mian OS.Although the 3D trajectory of the body centre of mass during ambulation constitutes the 'locomotor signature' at different gaits and speeds for humans and other legged species, no quantitative method for its description has been proposed in the literature so far. By combining the mathematical discoveries of Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-1830, analysis of periodic events) and of Jules Antoine Lissajous (1822-1880, parametric equation for closed loops) we designed a method simultaneously capturing the spatial and dynamical features of that 3D trajectory. The motion analysis of walking and r...
Hobbs SJ, Licka T, Polman R.Locomotion adaptation mechanisms have been observed in horses, but little information is available in relation to banked and nonbanked curve locomotion, which might be important to optimise training environments. Objective: To determine if adaptation mechanisms in horses existed when moving on a banked compared to a flat curve and whether adaptation was similar in different gaits. Methods: Eight infrared cameras were positioned on the outside of a 10 m lungeing circle and calibrated. Retroreflective markers were used to define left and right metacarpus (McIII) and proximal phalanges (P1), meta...
Nauwelaerts S, Allen WA, Lane JM, Clayton HM.Quantifying the dynamics of limb movements requires knowledge of the mass distribution between and within limb segments. We measured segment masses, positions of segmental center of mass and moments of inertia of the fore and hind limb segments for 38 horses of different breeds and sizes. After disarticulation by dissections, segments were weighed and the position of the center of mass was determined by suspension. Moment of inertia was measured using a trifilar pendulum. We found that mass distribution does not change with size for animals under 600 kg and report ratios of segmental masses to...
Tan H, Wilson AM.Manoeuverability is a key requirement for successful terrestrial locomotion, especially on variable terrain, and is a deciding factor in predator-prey interaction. Compared with straight-line running, bend running requires additional leg force to generate centripetal acceleration. In humans, this results in a reduction in maximum speed during bend running and a published model assuming maximum limb force as a constraint accurately predicts how much a sprinter must slow down on a bend given his maximum straight-line speed. In contrast, greyhounds do not slow down or change stride parameters dur...
Patterson M, Doyle J, Cahill E, Caulfield B, McCarthy Persson U.Horse rider ability has long been measured using horse performance, competition results and visual observation. Scientific methods of measuring rider ability on the flat are emerging such as measuring position angles and harmony of the horse-rider system. To date no research has quantified rider ability in show jumping. Kinematic analysis and motion sensors have been used in sports other than show jumping to measure the quality of motor control patterns in humans. The aim of this study was to quantify rider ability in show jumping using body-mounted IMUs. Preliminary results indicate that ther...
Harrison SM, Whitton RC, Kawcak CE, Stover SM, Pandy MG.Storage and utilization of strain energy in the elastic tissues of the distal forelimb of the horse is thought to contribute to the excellent locomotory efficiency of the animal. However, the structures that facilitate elastic energy storage may also be exposed to dangerously high forces, especially at the fastest galloping speeds. In the present study, experimental gait data were combined with a musculoskeletal model of the distal forelimb of the horse to determine muscle and joint contact loading and muscle-tendon work during the stance phase of walking, trotting and galloping. The flexor te...
Oosterlinck M, Pille F, Back W, Dewulf J, Gasthuys F.The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between fore- and hind-hoof contact area and limb loading. Data from a previous study on forelimb loading and symmetry were compared with data on hindlimb kinetics, and the fore- and hind-hoof contact area at the walk and trot was evaluated. Five sound ponies, selected for symmetrical feet, were walked and trotted over a pressure plate embedded in a custom-made runway. The hindlimb peak vertical force (PVF) and vertical impulse (VI) were found to be significantly lower than in the forelimb, whereas their high symmetry ratios (>95%) did n...
Martin AM, Elliott JA, Duffy P, Blake CM, Ben Attia S, Katz LM, Browne JA, Gath V, McGivney BA, Hill EW, Murphy BA.Circadian rhythms are innate 24-h cycles in behavioral and biochemical processes that permit physiological anticipation of daily environmental changes. Elucidating the relationship between activity rhythms and circadian patterns of gene expression may contribute to improved human and equine athletic performance. Six healthy, untrained mares were studied to determine whether locomotor activity behavior and skeletal muscle gene expression reflect endogenous circadian regulation. Activity was recorded for three consecutive 48-h periods: as a group at pasture (P), and individually stabled under a ...
Human movement scienceAugust 30, 2010
Volume 29, Issue 6 956-963 doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2010.05.010
Kang OD, Ryu YC, Ryew CC, Oh WY, Lee CE, Kang MS.The purpose of this study was to evaluate the rider position at walk and trot as a function of rider skill level by analyzing joint angles. Participants included three advanced riders and six beginners, and training was conducted for one hour, twice a week for 24 weeks. In the walk stage of the beginners' group, the elbows and shoulders sustained postures comparable to those of the advanced riders group; the trunk tilted forwards at first, but later it tilted slightly behind the vertical. The knee, ankle, and left-right angle kept stable postures after 12 weeks of training (p<.05). The fron...
Clayton HM, Lavagnino M, Kaiser LJ, Stubbs NC.It is considered that specific exercises to strengthen limb musculature would be helpful. Objective: To describe swing phase kinematic and kinetic changes in the hindlimbs of trotting horses in response to the addition of leg weights to the hind pasterns. Methods: Six horses were prepared by placing reflective skin markers on the hindlimbs, the withers and fore hooves. Horses were evaluated at trot for 6 trials with and without leg weights (700 g) attached around the pasterns, with the 2 conditions applied in random order. The markers were tracked to determine peak heights of the flight arc of...
Butcher MT, Chase PB, Hermanson JW, Clark AN, Brunet NM, Bertram JE.Equine digital flexor muscles have independent tendons but a nearly identical mechanical relationship to the main joint they act upon. Yet these muscles have remarkable diversity in architecture, ranging from long, unipennate fibers ("short" compartment of DDF) to very short, multipennate fibers (SDF). To investigate the functional relevance of the form of the digital flexor muscles, fiber contractile properties were analyzed in the context of architecture differences and in vivo function during locomotion. Myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform fiber type was studied, and in vitro motility assays w...
Bandarra PM, Pavarini SP, Raymundo DL, Corrêa AM, Pedroso PM, Driemeier D.After ingesting green leaves of T. micrantha, 2 horses showed apathy, locomotor deficit, blindness, recumbency, paddling, coma and death. The main gross findings were scattered haemorrhages, enhanced lobular pattern of the liver, and cerebral oedema. Histological changes included disseminated haemorrhages, massive hepatocellular necrosis, neuronal degeneration, Alzheimer type II astrocytes and cerebral perivascular oedema. Clinicopathological findings which were comparable with those observed in Trema micrantha poisoned ruminants, associated with epidemiological evidence suggested the diagnosi...
van Heel MC, van Dierendonck MC, Kroekenstoel AM, Back W.Foot stance in grazing significantly influences hoof conformation and development from foal to yearling age. Objective: To conduct a longitudinal study to establish if the relationship between motor laterality and uneven front feet persisted in 3-year-old horses at the time of studbook selection and to investigate if such laterality and unevenness might influence the horses' ability to perform symmetrically while trotting, cantering and free jumping. Methods: Seventeen clinically sound but untrained (with only minimal experience of handling) and sound Warmblood horses that had participated in ...
Clayton HM, Larson B, Kaiser LJ, Lavagnino M.This study investigated the horse's contribution to tension in the reins. The experimental hypotheses were that tension in side reins (1) increases biphasically in each trot stride, (2) changes inversely with rein length, and (3) changes with elasticity of the reins. Eight riding horses trotted in hand at consistent speed in a straight line wearing a bit and bridle and three types of side reins (inelastic, stiff elastic, compliant elastic) were evaluated in random order at long, neutral, and short lengths. Strain gauge transducers (240 Hz) measured minimal, maximal and mean rein tension, rate ...
Byström A, Rhodin M, von Peinen K, Weishaupt MA, Roepstorff L.The kinematics of the saddle and rider have not been thoroughly described at the walk. Objective: To describe saddle and rider movements during collected walk in a group of high-level dressage horses and riders. Methods: Seven high-level dressage horses and riders were subjected to kinematic measurements while performing collected walk on a treadmill. Movements of the saddle and rider's pelvis, upper body and head were analysed in a rigid body model. Projection angles were determined for the rider's arms and legs, and the neck and trunk of the horse. Distances between selected markers were use...
Halling Thomsen M, Tolver Jensen A, Sørensen H, Lindegaard C, Haubro Andersen P.Detection and quantification of lameness in horses consists primarily of a subjective assessment, whereby both intra- and inter-observer disagreements exist, especially with low grade lameness. Therefore, clinically applicable methods are needed for reliable, objective assessments. The aim of this study was to describe three symmetry indices derived from a simple accelerometric method and investigate these in sound trotting horses. The indices describe the overall symmetry of the gait, the symmetry of loads placed on the limbs and the symmetry in timing between left and right steps. These symm...
Clayton HM, White AD, Kaiser LJ, Nauwelaerts S, Lavagnino M, Stubbs NC.Lightweight tactile stimulators attached to the hind pasterns increase the height of the hind hoof flight arc but details of the induced changes in swing phase kinematics and kinetics have not been investigated. Objective: Stimulators on the hind pasterns are associated with increased hindlimb joint flexions and increased positive work performed by the hip and tarsal musculature. Methods: Nine nonlame horses trotted 4 times with and without 55 g tactile stimulators loosely attached around the hind pasterns. Height of the flight arc and peak flexion angles of the hindlimb joints were measured a...
Merritt JS, Pandy MG, Brown NA, Burvill CR, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Davies HM.To assess the net mechanical load on the distal end of the third metacarpal bone in horses during walking and trotting. Methods: 3 Quarter Horses and 1 Thoroughbred. Methods: Surface strains measured on the left third metacarpal bone of the Thorough-bred were used with a subject-specific model to calculate loading (axial compression, bending, and torsion) of the structure during walking and trotting. Forelimb kinematics and ground reaction forces measured in the 3 Quarter Horses were used with a musculoskeletal model of the distal portion of the forelimb to determine loading of the distal end ...
Chaplin SJ, Gretgrix L.Housing conditions for horses impose various levels of confinement, which may compromise welfare. Lying behaviour and activity can be used as welfare indicators for domestic animals and rebound behaviour suggests a build-up of motivation resulting from deprivation. The objective of this study was to determine if activity and lying behaviour of horses are affected by housing conditions and to investigate the occurrence of rebound behaviour after release from confinement. Eight horses were subjected, in pairs, to each of four experimental treatments; paddock (P), fully stabled (FS), partly stabl...
Shurtleff TL, Engsberg JR.Hippotherapy (HPOT) is a therapy that uses horse movement. This pilot investigation objectively evaluated the efficacy of HPOT in improving head/trunk stability in children with cerebral palsy (CP). The participants were six children with spastic diplegia and six children without disability. Head and trunk stability was challenged by using a motorized barrel and measured by a video motion capture system before and after a 12-week intervention of 45 min of HPOT a week. The variables measured were anterior-posterior (AP) translation of the head, and spine at five points and average AP head angle...
Grossi B, Canals M.We analyzed the morphology and the walk-trot and trot-gallop transition velocities of nine juvenile horses and compared them with their mothers. We also compared the relative stride length and the duty factor of the juveniles with respect to adults at three equivalent trotting speeds (Froude numbers 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0), to determine dynamic similarity. Juveniles had a negative allometry in their leg bones, mainly because of little size changes of the distal portions. The negative allometry of extremities allows juveniles to increase stride length without increasing step frequency, which can be...
Higler MH, Brommer H, L'Ami JJ, de Grauw JC, Nielen M, van Weeren PR, Laverty S, Barneveld A, Back W.Multiple in vitro studies assessing articular tissues have indicated that glucosamine and chondroitin sulphate may possess anti-inflammatory effects, but little is known of their clinical effects in vivo. Many old horses have stiff joints, which is likely to be attributable to inflammation and therapy with these nutraceutical compounds could improve joint function. Objective: To assess the clinical effects of a mixed supplement on the improvement of stiff gait in aged horses. Methods: Randomised, blinded, placebo-controlled study. Methods: A group of 24 geriatric equids (age 29 ± 4 years; mea...
Santosuosso E, Leguillette R, Vinardell T, Filho S, Massie S, McCrae P, Johnson S, Rolian C, David F.Swimming is used for rehabilitation and conditioning purposes in equine sports medicine. We described the swimming kinematics of the equine forelimbs in Part 1. The aim of Part 2 is to assess stifle, tarsus, and hind fetlock joints kinematics in swimming horses. The objectives were 1- to calculate and compare joint angles during swimming against passive mobilizations (PM), 2- to determine joints angular velocities during a swimming stride cycle. Methods: Eleven elite endurance horses were used to swim in a 100-meter straight pool. Underwater (swimming) and overground PM videos were recorded fr...
Jansen MO, van den Bogert AJ, Riemersma DJ, Schamhardt HC.The load distribution over tendinous structures in the equine forelimb was studied by computing forces from in vivo signals of implanted liquid-metal strain gauges in 5 ponies. For validation, these tendon forces were converted to joint moments, which were summed and compared to the calculated joint moments caused by the ground reaction force. Mean peak forces per kilogram body weight (n = 5) amounted to 5.2 N/kg for the superficial digital flexor tendon, 3.8 N/kg for the deep digital flexor tendon, 7.3 N/kg for the distal accessory (check) ligament and 8.4 N/kg for the third interosseous musc...
Zellner A, Bockstahler B, Peham C.The present study aimed to investigate the effects of Kinesio Taping on the trajectory of the forelimb and the muscle activity of the M. brachiocephalicus and the M. extensor carpi radialis in horses. 19 horses and ponies of different breeds (body weight: 496±117 kg), gender (8 mares, 10 geldings and 3 stallions) and ages (14.9±6.9 years old) were analysed without Kinesio Tape ("no tape"), with Kinesio Tape (muscle facilitation application on both muscles of both sides, "with tape") and immediately after Kinesio Taping ("post tape") through kinematic motion analysis and surface electromyogra...
Strobach A, Kotschwar A, Mayhew IG, Peham C, Licka T.Equine ataxia is routinely evaluated subjectively by clinicians; however, objective measurements of the movement and coordination of ataxic horses have not been reported. Objective: To document the movement pattern of ataxic horses and compare the results to the movement of neurologically sound horses with, and without, sedation. Methods: Seventeen ataxic horses were evaluated walking and trotting on a treadmill using a 3D high speed video system. From the horizontal movement of hoof markers the autocorrelation function (ACF) of the left forelimb and the cross correlation function (CCF) betwee...
Holm KR, Wennerstrand J, Lagerquist U, Eksell R, Johnston C.Diagnostic infiltration of local anaesthetic solution is commonly used in cases of equine back pain. Evaluation is subjective and it is not known how local analgesia of the back affects horses without clinical signs of back pain. Objective: To evaluate the effect of infiltration of local anaesthetics on the movement of the back in horses without clinical signs of back pain, and to evaluate the usefulness of kinematic studies as an objective and quantitative tool in evaluating local analgesia in clinical practice. Methods: The kinematics of the back in 10 clinically sound horses were measured o...
Best R, Standing R.When compared with other equestrian sports, Polo players engage in a high number of player-pony interactions. To ensure optimal performance of the player-pony dyad, an understanding of the workloads performed by each pony and the physiological cost placed on the rider are required. This investigation examined the relationship and interaction between Polo pony performance (speeds attained, distance covered, and movements performed) and the corresponding heart rate responses in Polo players, within and between games across a 16-goal Polo tournament. Descriptive statistics revealed Polo is played...
Church EE, Walker AM, Wilson AM, Pfau T.Advances in gait analysis techniques have led to assessment tools that can aid in detecting and quantifying lameness; here, bilateral tubera coxae and pelvic movement during over ground locomotion are compared in order to investigate a practical method to assess hindlimb lameness in the horse. Objective: To evaluate which parameters from anatomical landmarks on trunk and proximal hindlimbs are the best indicators of degree and side of hindlimb lameness. Methods: Fifteen horses (age 11-23 years, 6 nonlame and 9 unilaterally hindlimb lame horses 1/10 to 2/10 lame) were fitted with 4 inertial sen...
Gorissen BMC, Wolschrijn CF, Serra Bragança FM, Geerts AAJ, Leenders WOJL, Back W, van Weeren PR.Foals stand and walk immediately after birth, but insight into the subsequent longitudinal development of their gait kinetics in the early juvenile phase and the possible influence of osteochondrosis thereon is lacking. Objective: To quantify gait kinetics in foals during the first half year of life, taking into account their osteochondrosis status. Methods: Prospective, cohort study performed at a single stud farm. Methods: Pressure plate measurements at walk and trot from 11 Dutch Warmblood foals during the first 24 weeks of life were used to determine body mass normalised peak vertical forc...
Schwarz S, Marr I, Farmer K, Graf K, Stefanski V, Krueger K.Laterality in horses has been studied in recent decades. Although most horses are kept for riding purposes, there has been almost no research on how laterality may be affected by carrying a rider. In this study, 23 horses were tested for lateral preferences, both with and without a rider, in three different experiments. The rider gave minimal aids and rode on a long rein to allow the horse free choice. Firstly, motor laterality was assessed by observing forelimb preference when stepping over a pole. Secondly, sensory laterality was assessed by observing perceptual side preferences when the hor...
Wilkins CA, Nankervis K, Protheroe L, Draper SB.Static assessment and grouping of riders by competition level are prevalent in equestrian coaching practice and research. This study explored sagittal pelvic tilt in 35 competitive dressage riders to analyse the relationship between static and dynamic postures and assess the interaction of competition level. Riders were assessed using optical motion capture on a riding simulator at halt and in walk, trot, and left and right canter. Mean, minimum and maximum pelvic tilt, and range of motion (ROM) were measured as the pitch rotation of a rigid body formed by markers placed on the rider's left/ri...
Roepstorff L, Johnston C, Drevemo S, Gustås P.According to riding texts, draw reins are supposed to support increased collection. This has not been measured objectively. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine whether a horse ridden with draw reins would relatively increase weightbearing of the hindquarters while worked with the draw reins compared to a normal rein. Ground reaction forces were measured in 8 horses at the slow trot over a force plate in 3 different experimental set-ups: 1) riding with only a draw rein (DR); 2) riding with the combination of a normal and a draw rein (NR-DR) and 3) riding with a normal rein (...
Rietbroek NJ, Dingboom EG, Joosten BJ, Eizema K, Everts ME.To investigate whether training for show jumping that is commenced early after birth affects the characteristics of equine locomotory muscle. Methods: 19 Dutch Warmblood horses. Methods: Horses were assigned to a trained or not trained (control) group. After weaning, training (free jumping [2 d/wk] that was alternated with a 20-minute period of exercise in a mechanical rotating walker [3 d/wk]) was started and continued until horses were 3 years old. Fiber type composition (determined from myosin heavy chain [MyHC] content), fiber area, diffusion index (area supplied by 1 capillary), citrate s...
Lee JN, Lee MW, Byeon YH, Lee WS, Kwak KC.In this study, we classify four horse gaits (walk, sitting trot, rising trot, canter) of three breeds of horse (Jeju, Warmblood, and Thoroughbred) using a neuro-fuzzy classifier (NFC) of the Takagi-Sugeno-Kang (TSK) type from data information transformed by a wavelet packet (WP). The design of the NFC is accomplished by using a fuzzy c-means (FCM) clustering algorithm that can solve the problem of dimensionality increase due to the flexible scatter partitioning. For this purpose, we use the rider's hip motion from the sensor information collected by inertial sensors as feature data for the cla...
Chandra Paul R, Ba Nguyen T, Okuda Y, Nu Anh Le T, Mosese Dau Tabuyaqona J, Konishi Y, Kawamoto Y, Nozawa K, Kunieda T.There are currently eight native horse populations in Japan, namely, Hokkaido, Kiso, Noma, Taishu, Misaki, Tokara, Miyako, and Yonaguni horses. Since locomotion traits, including gaitedness, are important for riding and packing horses, the genetic properties associated with these traits could be informative for understanding the characteristics and history of these horses. In this study, we investigated the distribution of the mutant allele of DMRT3 gene (DMRT3:p.Ser301Ter) associated with ambling gaits in the Japanese native horse. We also examined haplotypes of SNPs in the 83-kb region inclu...
Clayton HM, Lavagnino M, Kaiser LJ, Stubbs NC.It is considered that specific exercises to strengthen limb musculature would be helpful. Objective: To describe swing phase kinematic and kinetic changes in the hindlimbs of trotting horses in response to the addition of leg weights to the hind pasterns. Methods: Six horses were prepared by placing reflective skin markers on the hindlimbs, the withers and fore hooves. Horses were evaluated at trot for 6 trials with and without leg weights (700 g) attached around the pasterns, with the 2 conditions applied in random order. The markers were tracked to determine peak heights of the flight arc of...
Thomsen MH, Persson AB, Jensen AT, Sørensen H, Andersen PH.Equine lameness examination is based on subjective visual scoring of lameness. Instrumented objective methods for lameness examinations may be complicated to perform and the equipment is often stationary. Accelerometry has a potential clinical use; however, the reduction and interpretation of equine accelerometric data are not yet routine and the value of accelerometry in equine lameness examination is unclear. Objective: To use accelerometric data to calculate 2 different accelerometric symmetry scores and to evaluate the agreement of these with traditional lameness scores done by experienced...
Leach D, Cymbaluk NF.Velocity-dependent changes in stride length and frequency were studied in 19 male foals, 6 to 8 months of age, and were related to body morphometrics. Eighteen distance and 8 angle measurements were digitized from 16-mm films of standing foals. The total mass and the percentage of total mass acting through the forelimbs were also recorded. Stride length and frequency data were extracted from 16-mm films of 239 strides of the walk, trot, and canter-gallop. Polynomial-regression analysis was used to determine the equation that best described the relationship between data of stride length or freq...
Jones JH, Ohmura H, Stanley SD, Hiraga A.Human athletes run faster and experience fewer injuries when running on surfaces with a stiffness 'tuned' to their bodies. We questioned if the same might be true for horses, and if so, would running on surfaces of different stiffness cause a measurable change in the amount of energy required to move at a given speed? Objective: Different brands of commercial treadmills have pans of unequal stiffness, and this difference would result in different metabolic power requirements to locomote at a given speed. Methods: We tested for differences in stiffness between a Mustang 2200 and a Säto I comme...
Kurvers CM, van Weeren PR, Rogers CW, van Dierendonck MC.To describe spontaneous locomotion activity of foals kept under various management conditions and assess the suitability of global positioning system (GPS) technology for recording foal activity. Animals-59 foals. Methods: During the foals' first 4 months of life, 921 observation periods (15 minutes each) were collected and analyzed for locomotion activities. The GPS system was evaluated by simultaneously carrying out field observations with a handheld computer. Results: Foals spent 0.5% of total observed time cantering, 0.2% trotting, 10.7% walking, 32.0% grazing, 34.8% standing, and 21.6% ly...
Thomason JJ.Objectives were to examine the deformation of the healthy equine front hoof during locomotion, by recording strains on its outer surface, and to test whether its mechanical behaviour is significantly altered under different locomotory conditions and variation in hoof shape. Strains were recorded in vivo from 5 rosette gauges around the circumference of the right forehooves of 12 horses. The magnitudes and orientations of principal strains at the midstep were compared statistically for different conditions of shoeing (shod vs. unshod), gait (walk vs. trot), substrate (treadmill vs. ground), and...
Kotschwar AB, Baltacis A, Peham C.Saddle pads are widely used in riding sports but their influence on saddle pressures is poorly understood. Objective: To evaluate the forces acting on the horse's back, and the eventual pressure distribution by using different saddle pads underneath a fitting saddle. Methods: Sixteen sound horses of different breeds and ages were ridden on a treadmill at walk and sitting trot. The horses were wearing a dressage saddle with a fitting saddle tree and 4 different saddle pads (gel, leather, foam and reindeer fur) successively. For comparison, measurements were made without any saddle pad. Right fo...
Journal of biomechanicsAugust 28, 2021
Volume 128 110715 doi: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2021.110715
Akbari Shahkhosravi N, C R Bellenzani M, M S Davies H, Komeili A.Hoof conformation plays a key role in equine locomotion. Toe-in conformation is an abnormal condition characterized by inward deviation of the limb from its frontal axis. Several studies have documented differences in hoof deformation and hoof kinematics in horses with toe-in and normal hoof conformations. However, the reason behind this has yet to be understood. The present study hypothesizes that a different center of pressure (COP) path underneath the hoof is the cause of different deformation patterns and hoof kinematics in toe-in hooves. In vivo measurements and finite element (FE) analys...
Licka T, Peham C, Zohmann E.The aim of this study was to establish basic reference data for evaluating 3-dimensional movement of the equine back at the trot. In 22 mature horses without any clinical signs of back pain, the movement of the back was measured during trotting on a treadmill with a system for motion analysis. The position of the markers placed on the head, hooves, skin above the spinous processes of T5, T10, T16, L3 and on 2 of the sacral spines was recorded. The results of all movements were expressed in percent of the horse's height at its withers. At the trot, the maximum lateral movement at the head was 1...
Johnston C, Roepstorff L, Drevemo S, Kallings P.Fast trotting Standardbred horses were filmed along a straight on an oval dirt track. Five consecutive stance phases were analysed to describe the planar kinematics of the distal hindlimb. The rapid changes in the geometry of the distal hindlimb that occur during the early stance phase were studied. The hoof segment was initially braked vertically and moved in the direction of the horse. The hoof moved forward on the track surface for more than 20% of the stance time (ST). Two specific deviations in the otherwise smooth course of the fetlock joint angle appeared at 16 and 29% of ST. Tarsal ang...
Audigié F, Pourcelot P, Degueurce C, Denoix JM, Geiger D, Bortolussi C.To evaluate asymmetry in placement of bilateral skin markers on horses and to determine effect of asymmetric skin marker placement on kinematic variables for trotting horses. Methods: 10 horses for evaluation of asymmetry in marker placement; 1 horse for evaluation of effects on kinematic variables. Methods: Asymmetry in marker placement was assessed by attaching markers to horses and comparing radiographs of left and right limbs. An experimental model was developed to determine effects on kinematic variables; accuracy of the model was validated experimentally. Using kinematic data from a clin...
Ricard A, Dumont Saint Priest B, Danvy S, Barrey E.The aim of this study was to evaluate the genetic component of the locomotor jumping ability, via a wearable accelerometer sensor, and to estimate the genetic correlation with performance in competition, to introduce such criteria in selection schema. A sample of 1,056 young 3-year-old horses were equipped with a 3-dimensional accelerometer during a free jumping test, in regular breeding shows from 2015 to 2017. Seven variables were extracted from the dorso-ventral acceleration curve for the last three jumps over a double bar obstacle of 1.15 m for the front pole and 1.20 m for the back pole w...
Lanovaz JL, Clayton HM, Colborne GR, Schamhardt HC.The purpose of this study was to calculate net moments of force at the joints of the forelimb during the swing phase of the stride. An optoelectronic system was used to measure segmental kinematics for 3 strides in 5 sound, Warmblood horses trotting at a mean velocity +/- s.d. of 3.03 +/- 0.16 m/s. A link segment model was used to determine the net moments of force about the joints of the left forelimb. The model combined kinematic data with morphometric data describing the inertial parameters of the limb segments of warmblood horses, and incorporated correction factors for skin displacement. ...
Usherwood JR, Smith BJH.Many medium and large herbivores locomote forwards very slowly and intermittently when grazing. While the footfall order during grazing is the same as for walking, the relative fore-hind timing-phasing-is quite different. Extended periods of static stability are clearly required during grazing; however, stability requirements are insufficient to account for the timing. Aspects of relatively rapid rolling and pitching-toppling due to the resistance of the back to bending and twisting-can be included in a simplifying geometric model to explain the observation that, in grazing livestock, a step f...
Bowker RM, Brewer AM, Vex KB, Guida LA, Linder KE, Sonea IM, Stinson AW.Two types of sensory receptors were located in the equine foot, using anatomic techniques. Histologic examination of stained hoof sections revealed lamellated corpuscles in the hoof dermis, which had many of the morphologic characteristics of Pacinian corpuscles. These sensory receptors were restricted to the palmar (caudal) aspects of the solar dermis of the heel. A second type of receptor was detected by use of immunocytochemistry, indicating apparently naked nerve endings containing the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide-like immunoreactivity in skin, solar dermal tubules, and the...
