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Topic:Morphology
Morphology in horses refers to the study of the form and structure of the equine body, including the skeletal, muscular, and integumentary systems. This field encompasses the examination of physical characteristics such as body conformation, limb structure, and cranial features, which can influence a horse's performance, health, and suitability for various activities or disciplines. Morphological assessments are often used in breeding programs to select for desirable traits and in veterinary evaluations to identify potential anatomical issues. This page aggregates peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the methodologies, findings, and implications of morphological studies in equine science.
Endothelial glycocalyx of equine intestinal vessels: electron microscopic and immunohistochemical imaging. To visualize the endothelial glycocalyx in equine intestinal vessels using electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry and to evaluate the impact of induced endotoxemia on its integrity. Unassigned: 6 healthy horses free of gastrointestinal disease were anesthetized with dexmedetomidine, ketamine, and diazepam and mechanically ventilated under isoflurane anesthesia. Jejunal venous tissue samples were collected after perfusion fixation with lanthanum nitrate before and 120 minutes after endotoxemia induced by IV administration of 30 ng·kg-1 Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide. For transmissio...
Aberrant skeletal muscle morphogenesis and myofiber differentiation characterize equine myotonic dystrophy. Equine myotonic dystrophy (eMD) is a rare neuromuscular disorder of undetermined origin marked by muscle hypertrophy and stiffness, dystrophic muscle histopathology, and myotonic discharges. In humans, myotonic dystrophy (DM) arises from trinucleotide repeat expansions in dystrophia myotonica protein kinase (DMPK) (DM1) or tetranucleotide expansions in cellular nucleic acid-binding protein (CNBP) (DM2), which disrupt mRNA processing and induce embryonic splicing patterns across multiple genes. In 6 eMD Quarter Horse types, (2-36 months-of-age) and 8 control Quarter Horses we determined: (1) fi...
Determining the timeline of gonadal and genital differentiation in male and female equine fetuses allows for early detection and intervention in malformations. Sexual differentiation in the equine fetus involves coordinated morphogenetic processes that shape both the gonads and the genital ducts. Although the formation of testes and ovaries has been relatively well documented, the temporal dynamics and morphometric patterns of the mesonephric (Wolffian) and paramesonephric (Müllerian) ducts remain insufficiently characterized. This study aimed to detail the timeline of gonadal and ductal differentiation in male and female equine fetuses during the critical developmental window between 60 and 80 days of gestation. Gross anatomical evaluation, histo...
Odontoblasts in Equine Hypsodont Teeth-How They Cope with Permanent Occlusal Wear. Horses' hypsodont (high-crowned) teeth face permanent dental wear. This is compensated for by a continuous eruption, which requires a high adaptability of odontoblasts; otherwise, the dental pulp would be exposed. Here, we report on how equine odontoblasts respond to the challenge of maintaining a high production rate of dentin. We analyzed CD90, a marker of odontoblastic differentiation, and nestin, a marker of mature odontoblasts, in equine pulpal tissue via immunofluorescence. For comparison, we examined the hypselodont (ever-growing) incisors and brachydont (short-crowned) molars of rats. ...
Spatial strategies in non-territorial societies: how feral horses maintain boundaries with other groups. Encounters between competitive individuals or groups are common in social animals and can involve costly aggression; thus, animals often employ strategies to minimize direct conflict. However, research on whether and how animals adjust their group spatial structure when they encounter or spatially co-occur with a different group remains limited. We investigated how non-territorial units in feral horse multilevel societies manage spatial encounters with neighbouring units. We observed 25 reproductive units in northern Portugal, using drones, and employed statistical analyses to quantify spatial...
Differential Expression and Analysis of TBX3 Gene in Skin Tissues of Dun Mongolian Horses with and Without Bider Markings. (1) Background: The dun coat color, a wild-type phenotype in horses characterized by pigment dilution and primitive markings, is regulated by . This study explored the expression and localization of in the Bider marking (a primitive mark unique to the shoulder of horses); (2) Methods: We compared skin tissues from Bider-marked and non-Bider dun Mongolian horses. Samples were collected from the Bider area (dark-colored/light-colored shoulder), dorsal midline, and croup. Histological staining, qRT-PCR, and Western blotting were used to analyze pigment distribution and expression at mRNA and pr...
Functional and molecular characterization of equine intestinal organoids across media conditions and intestinal segments. Gastrointestinal (GI) disease is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in horses, with disruption of the intestinal epithelial barrier playing a central role in disease pathogenesis. A deeper understanding of the molecular and functional properties of the equine intestinal barrier is essential to improve diagnostics and therapeutics. While intestinal organoids have emerged as a promising tool for modeling GI physiology and disease, equine-specific data remain limited. Existing studies vary in methodology and often lack functional characterization, particularly across different intestinal re...
Unraveling ovarian histology: The key morphological aspects that spur the development of the Fossa ovarii in equine. The equine ovary exhibits unique structural and developmental features that distinguish it from those of other domestic species, including the presence of an ovulation fossa and an inversion of cortical and medullary layers. This study aimed to investigate the morphostructural development of the equine fetal ovary, with particular emphasis on the formation of the ovulation fossa. Fourteen female equine fetuses, ranging from 70 to 200 days of gestation, were collected from a commercial abattoir. Results revealed a progressive increase in ovarian volume and marked histological changes througho...
The petrosal and bony labyrinth of extinct horses (Perissodactyla, Equidae) and their implications for perissodactyl evolution. Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates, are represented today by 16 species of rhinoceroses, tapirs, and horses. Perissodactyls were much more diverse in the past, having a rich fossil record spanning from the earliest Eocene (~56 Ma) to recent, including a myriad of extinct lineages. Despite over a century of study, the inter-relationships of some extinct perissodactyl families remain poorly resolved. New morphological characters are needed to help solve this issue. Recent studies suggest that the ear region, ., the petrosal and the bony labyrinth of the inner ear, is a valuable source of morp...
Histomorphometric Analysis of the Endometrium of Jennies (Equus asinus) and Mares (Equus caballus) in Estrus: Anatomical Differences and Possible Reproductive Implications. Assisted reproductive techniques are often extrapolated from horses to donkeys, despite poorer fertility outcomes in jennies. This issue has been attributed to unknown uterine species-specific differences. This study compared, through histomorphometry, the endometrium of jennies and mares. Endometrial biopsies (N = 12) were taken from reproductively sound jennies (n = 6) and mares (n = 6) in estrus. Histomorphometric analysis evaluated luminal (LE, µm) and glandular epithelium height (GE, µm), glandular lumen diameter (LD, µm), glandular area (GA, µm), the number of glands (#G), and glandu...
Urine sediment characterisation in physically healthy adult jennies (Equus asinus). A cross-sectional study. Urinalysis is a valuable, non-invasive method for evaluating renal function, yet data on donkey urinary parameters remain scarce. This study characterised urinary sediment in fifty-four healthy adult jennies, established urine specific gravity (USG) reference intervals, and proposed a preliminary semi-quantitative sediment grading scale. Urine samples were collected via catheterisation and analysed using refractometry, dipstick testing, and microscopy. The median USG was 1.048 (IQR: 1.040-1.055) with a pH of 7.6 (IQR: 7.2-8.0). Leukocytes and glucose were absent; erythrocytes were found in one...
Changes in Uterine Glandular Composition in Kyrgyz Breed Mares According to Pregnancy Status. This study was conducted to examine glandular histological changes in the uterus of Kyrgyz breed mares during the first 6 months of pregnancy. The study used 53 Kyrgyz breed mares; 43 of these were at different stages of pregnancy, while 10 were non-pregnant mares. Uterine samples obtained at the slaughterhouse were evaluated histomorphometrically; endometrial thickness, gland density, gland epithelial height and gland diameter were measured. In conclusion, it was concluded that in Kyrgyz mares, endometrial thickness, glandular epithelial height and diameter increased as pregnancy progressed...
Advances in Equine Genomics: Decoding the Genetic Architecture of Morphology, Performance, Behavior, and Adaptation. The genus Equus, encompassing horses, donkeys, and extinct relatives, has evolved over approximately 55 million years from small, multi-toed ancestors to the modern horse. Selective breeding has produced over 600 distinct horse breeds optimized for diverse traits such as size, conformation, performance, and adaptability. In the past two decades, rapid advances in equine genomics have significantly deepened our understanding of the molecular basis of these traits. The integration of high-throughput sequencing, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) geno...
Genome-Wide Characterization of the HOX Gene Family: Evolution and Expression Patterns in Donkey. The gene family plays an indispensable role in regulating embryonic development, cell differentiation, and morphogenesis. This study employed bioinformatics approaches for systematic analysis, ultimately identifying 33 gene family members from the donkey genome. Physicochemical property analysis revealed that the number of amino acids encoded ranged from 94 to 444, with 31 members classified as alkaline proteins. Their secondary structure was predominantly composed of random coils and alpha helices, and all members were localized to the nucleus. Conserved motif analysis further demonstrated ...
Measuring Equine Hooves in Radiographs and Computed Tomography Images Reveals Unexpected Size Differences. In a previous study on hoof biometry, we found that mathematical correction of measuring results from radiographs did not lead to complete correspondence to computed tomography (CT) results. The present study investigates this finding by comparing 13 measures of six cadaveric equine digits collected with the following workflows: radiographs with 1 and 2 m focus-object distance (FOD) (Xray 1 m/2 m), computed tomography images in planes defined based on anatomical landmarks (CTw), simulated radiographs based on the tomography dataset (virtual 120-mm slabs, Xray Sim) and measurements based ...
Cyclooxygenase-2 and von Willebrand factor-an immunohistochemical study of the equine foot with and without laminitis, post-mortem perfused with paraffin oil. Equine laminitis is a complex and potentially fatal disease characterized by severe vascular and inflammatory alterations within the equine foot. This study aimed to develop immunohistochemistry (IHC) protocols for the detection of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and von Willebrand factor (vWF) in equine feet with and without laminitis, post-mortem perfused with paraffin oil. Unassigned: A total of 12 equine forelimbs from 8 horses were utilized in this study, divided into two study cohorts: one with laminitis and the other as a non-laminitis control. To develop the IHC protocols thoroughly, the tiss...
Correction: An anatomical study of the subarachnoid space surrounding the trigeminal ganglion in horses-in preparation for a controlled glycerol rhizotomy in equids. [This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1424890.].
Equine monocyte-derived macrophages revisited: isolation and comprehensive characterization of pro- versus anti-inflammatory polarisation. Macrophages play key roles in tissue homeostasis and regeneration-associated inflammation. Unlike humans, a reliable protocol to obtain and polarise equine monocyte-derived macrophages is lacking. In this study the polarisation of equine macrophages, derived from CD172a peripheral blood monocytes is described. After differentiation, IFN-γ/LPS or IL-4 were used to induce pro- and anti-inflammatory phenotypes, respectively. Evaluation criteria included morphology, mRNA (RT-qPCR) and protein expression (flow cytometry, immunofluorescence), nitric oxide and arginase production, cytokine secretion...
Quantitative holographic analysis in stallion spermatozoa following cryopreservation. This study employs Holographic tomography (HT) to examine structural and biophysical changes occurring during the cryopreservation of stallion sperm. HT is an advanced imaging technique that integrates digital holography with tomography to achieve three-dimensional, quantitative reconstructions of objects without the need for treatment or reporter dyes. By using refractive index (RI) intervals to represent specific structural regions of sperm cells, variations in optical density, surface area, volume, and dry mass across different cryopreservation extenders and donors have been quantified. Thr...
Gut microbial signatures and cardiac-microbiota axis in Yili horses with divergent exercise-induced cardiac remodeling. This study aimed to investigate how different training outcomes affect the gut microbiota composition in racehorses. Twenty-six Yili horses underwent a 9-month conditioning training regimen under uniform husbandry and management conditions. Post-training, the horses were divided into an excellence group (D. Y group) and a general group (D. P group) based on their athletic performance, with the top 10 performers constituting the D. Y group and the bottom 10 the D. P group. Cardiac morphology and function were quantitatively assessed via echocardiography, and metagenomic sequencing was performed...
Enhanced detection of equine strongyles: Insights from morphological and nemabiome metabarcoding approaches in northern Iran. Strongyles pose significant health concerns for equids globally. Strongyles, comprising over 60 species, can lead to severe morbidity and mortality, with Strongylus vulgaris posing higher risks due to its migratory behaviour. Routine diagnostic methods, such as faecal egg counts, lack species-level resolution, while traditional morphological techniques require advanced expertise. DNA metabarcoding offers a high-throughput alternative. Objective: To characterise the diversity of strongyles infecting horses in northern Iran and evaluate how age, sex, diagnostic methods and host population influe...
Regional variations in the morphology of the efferent ductules: a histological perspective in rats, bulls, stallions, and boars. Infertility is a global concern in both humans and domestic animals, with male factors accounting for nearly half of all cases. Among male reproductive structures, the efferent ductules play a crucial but understudied role in fertility. These tubules connect the testis to the epididymis and are primarily responsible for luminal fluid reabsorption, a process essential for sperm concentration, maturation, and transport. This study aimed to provide a comparative morphological and histological characterization of the efferent ductules in four species-rats, bulls, stallions, and boars-focusing on r...
Preliminary Biometric Study on Symmetry of Hoof Solear Aspect in Forelimbs in Four Horse Breeds. Correct conformation and symmetry of bilateral hooves are associated with a properly balanced hoof, which has a significant impact on the biomechanics of movement and reduces the risk of injury. The aim of the study was to compare solear aspect dimensions of bilateral hooves in forelimbs (hoof width, length, frog width, length, medial and lateral diagonals) with regard to sex, breed and age of horses. The dimensions were measured with a calliper in 100 horses of four breeds. The results showed that the breed factor significantly affected all dimensions. Age was significant for some variables, ...
Computed tomographic myelography of the cranial cervical vertebral column in unaffected Warmblood horses – comparison of transverse vertebral ratios in the flexed and neutral cranial cervical vertebral column. Computed tomographic myelography (CTM) is diagnostic for extradural spinal cord compression but knowledge about vertebral ratios from transverse images in flexion and normal position of unaffected horses is lacking. Objective: To compare the ratios of the cross-sectional areas (CSAs) of the spinal cord, the vertebral canal and of the contrast enhanced dural tube on transverse CTM images at C3-C4 in neutral and flexed positions in unaffected Warmbloods. Methods: CTM was performed in 13 neurologically unaffected Warmbloods in neutral and flexed cervical vertebral column positions. Ratios were ca...
Could “wild horses” drag you away? Quantifying muscular architecture in the forelimbs of extant, non-domestic equids (Perissodactyla: Equidae). Equid evolution is characterized by a high diversity of extinct species and morphologies, whereas extant equids share a superficially similar, monodactyl morphology. This inferred musculoskeletal similarity of modern equid limbs remains unexplored, and it is often assumed that domestic horse limbs are representative for wild equids (e.g., zebras, onagers, etc.). Our aim was to quantitatively describe the muscle architecture and arrangement of all forelimb muscles in extant wild Equus species to test this assumption, and investigate any differences between the species. We hypothesized that ther...
Immunolabelling and Micro-Computed Tomography Revealed Age-Related Alterations in 3D Microvasculature of Tendons. Tendon degeneration is common, and its risk increases with age both in humans and horses. Tendon regeneration and healing is limited due to inherent low cell density and vascularisation, and current treatments are insufficient as indicated by scar tissue formation and a high re-injury rate. The tendon vasculature plays a crucial role in tendon homeostasis, regeneration and healing, making it a potential therapeutic target. However, the effect of ageing on the tendon microvasculature is poorly understood. Here, we provide the first comprehensive characterisation of the tendon microvasculature. ...
Integrating miRNA, mRNA, and Targeted Metabolomics Analyses to Explore the Regulatory Mechanism of Cardiac Remodeling in Yili Horses. Training not only enhances the athletic performance of horses but also improves cardiac structure and function, strengthens cardiovascular adaptability, and reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases. However, the consequences of training on equine cardiac structure and function remain unclear. This study investigated the morphological, functional, genetic, and metabolic changes in the hearts of Yili horses divided into three groups: high athletic performance (agility group, AG), low athletic performance (ordinary group, OG), and untrained (untrained group, UN). The results showed remodeling ...
Radiographic measurements of Miniature Horse and Miniature Pony Feet. Reliable assessment of foot conformation is essential for podiatric management in Miniature Horses and Ponies, yet reference ranges and the reliability of radiographic measurements remain poorly defined. Objective: This study quantified radiographic measurements of foot conformation in sound, skeletally mature Miniature Horses and Ponies and evaluated their agreement, reliability, and precision. Methods: Standardised lateromedial and dorsopalmar/plantarodorsal radiographs were obtained from 30 Miniature Horses and Ponies. Two observers took 60 measurements from 10 sets of projections on three ...
Computed Tomographic Assessment of Normal Ocular Dimensions and Densities in Cadaveric Horses (Equus ferus caballus). This study aimed to characterize the computed tomographic (CT) dimensions and contrast attenuation properties of the equine eye. CT scans from 21 horses without ocular abnormalities were analyzed to obtain detailed ocular measurements and attenuation values. In addition, cranial measurements, such as nasal-occipital length and zygomatic width, were incorporated to explore potential anatomical relationships between the skull and intraocular structures. Although most correlations between cranial and ocular parameters were weak, statistically significant associations-particularly those involving ...
Morphometric changes in overweight horses following 10-week weight loss programs. Up to 70% of horses in domestic equine populations are overweight. Promotion of weight loss is an important component of limiting the detrimental co-morbidities associated with excess adipose tissue. The use of a body condition score (BCS) can help equine caregivers track their horse's weight-status. However, this single score doesn't reflect changes in individual adipose depots. The purpose of this study was to characterize morphometric changes (including 8 anatomic BCS measurements that make up the whole-BCS) in horses during 3 different weight-loss programs over 10 weeks. Methods: Thirty-tw...
