Pain management in horses involves various strategies and interventions designed to alleviate discomfort and improve the well-being of equine patients. It encompasses pharmacological approaches, such as the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), opioids, and other analgesics, as well as non-pharmacological methods like physical therapy, acupuncture, and environmental modifications. Effective pain management aims to address both acute and chronic pain conditions, which can result from injuries, surgeries, or diseases such as laminitis and arthritis. This page aggregates peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanisms, efficacy, and safety of different pain management techniques in horses, contributing to the understanding and advancement of equine veterinary care.
Ferreira da Cruz FS, Natalini CC, Pellin de Molnar BF, Beatriz da Silva Serpa P, Tisotti T, Midon M, Desessards de La Côrte F.This study aimed to evaluate the effects and lameness degree in horses administered tramadol after the P-glycoprotein (P-gp) enteric inhibitor ivermectin. Six horses were randomly distributed into three groups, which received two different doses of tramadol by a nasogastric tube: 1 mg/kg (tramadol group 1(GT1)), 4 mg/kg (tramadol group 4 (GT4)), and tramadol 1 mg/kg combined with ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg PO (ivermectin tramadol group (GT1 + Ive)), with one-week washout interval. Heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), intestinal motility, body temperature, and the degree of lameness were eval...
Dyson S, Pollard D.A Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) comprising 24 behaviours has been developed to facilitate the identification of musculoskeletal pain. The aim was to further test the RHpE by its application to a convenience sample (n = 60) of sports horses and riding school horses in regular work and assumed by their owners to be working comfortably. All horses performed a purpose-designed dressage-type test of 8.5 min duration in walk, trot and canter, with their normal rider. The RHpE was applied retrospectively to video recordings acquired in a standardised fashion. Seventy-three percent of horses were ...
Morris TB, Lumsden JM, Dunlop CI, Locke V, Sommerauer S, Hurcombe SDA.The nociceptive blockade of locoregional anesthesia prior to surgical stimulation can decrease anesthetic agent requirement and thereby potential dose-dependent side effects. The use of an ipsilateral second and third cervical spinal nerve locoregional anesthetic block for prosthetic laryngoplasty in the anesthetized horses has yet to be described. Anesthetic records of 20 horses receiving locoregional anesthesia prior to laryngoplasty were reviewed and compared to 20 horses of a similar patient cohort not receiving locoregional anesthesia. Non-blocked horses were 11 times more likely to requi...
Delli-Rocili MM, Cribb NC, Trout DR, Thomason JJ, Valverde A.To compare the effectiveness of a paravertebral nerve block vs local portal blocks for laparoscopic closure of the nephrosplenic space in standing sedated research horses. Methods: Randomized clinical trial. Methods: Twelve horses were randomly allocated to two groups (n = 6 per group), paravertebral block of nerves T , L , and L or local blocks of the three laparoscopic portals. Methods: Horses were sedated with dexmedetomidine (4 μg/kg IV and constant rate infusion [CRI] of 2.5 μg/kg/h) and morphine (50 μg/kg IV and CRI of 30 μg/kg/h). According to group allocation, 20 mL of either lid...
Miagkoff L, Bonilla AG.The effect of intrathecal anaesthesia of the carpal sheath on distal forelimb sensitivity in horses remains unknown. Objective: To assess the effect of carpal sheath anaesthesia on skin sensitivity of the distal forelimb and to determine potential locations for desensitisation of palmar nerves. Methods: In vivo experimental and descriptive anatomical studies. Methods: Mepivacaine hydrochloride 2% (0.6 mg/kg) was injected unilaterally in the carpal sheath of 8 horses. Mechanical nociception of the distal forelimb was measured with a dynamometer and compared with the control limb at t0, t15, t3...
Hontoir F, Paques F, Simon V, Balau B, Nicaise C, Clegg P, Dugdale A, Vandeweerd JM.Foot pain is a frequent cause of lameness in horses and can involve multiple structures within the hoof. The T-ligament (an anatomical structure connecting the synovium of the distal interphalangeal joint, the digital flexor tendon sheath and the navicular bursa) is poorly described. Five pairs of equine cadaver distal forelimbs were collected from a slaughterhouse. Sagittal sections (medial, middle and lateral) were obtained and processed with Haematoxylin Eosin Safran, Unna's Orcein, and Picrosirius red stains. Histological assessment revealed that the T-ligament was covered by the surroundi...
Hurcombe SD, Morris TB, VanderBroek AR, Habecker P, Wulster K, Hopster K.Horses underwent either cervical epidural space (CES) catheterization or subarachnoid space (SAS) catheterization while restrained in stocks, under deep sedation (detomidine and morphine) and local anesthesia (mepivacaine 2%) block. Catheters were placed under ultrasound guidance with visualization of the dura, SAS, and spinal cord between the first (C1) and second (C2) cervical vertebrae. Following sedation and sterile skin preparation, operator 1 placed under ultrasound guidance, a 6- or 8-inch Tuohy needle with the bevel oriented caudally. For CES, a 6-inch Touhy needle was used with the ha...
Veres-Nyéki KO, Nyéki J, Bodó G, Spadavecchia C.Quantitative sensory testing methods are now standard in the evaluation of sensory function in man, while few normal equine values have been reported. Objective: The aim of this experimental study was (a) to define the tactile sensory, mechanical nociceptive and thermal nociceptive thresholds of the equine face; (b) to assess the effect of age, sex, stimulation site and shaving; (c) to evaluate the reliability of the methods and (d) to provide reference facial quantitative sensory testing values. Methods: Method description. Methods: Thirty-four healthy Warmblood horses were used in the study....
Samy A, Elmetwally M, El-Khodery SA.The aim of the present study was to establish appropriate doses for both lidocaine hydrochloride (Hcl) and mepivacaine in intravenous regional analgesia (IVRA) and to assess their intraoperative and postoperative analgesic effects in horses with distal limb surgeries. A total of 55 draft horses were included in the present study. Six clinically healthy horses were selected randomly for establishing the doses of lidocaine Hcl and mepivacaine in IVRA in horse limbs. After selection, 32 horses suffered from various distal limb surgical affections were randomly allocated into three groups: thiopen...
Dai F, Leach M, MacRae AM, Minero M, Costa ED.The Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) is a facial-expression-based pain coding system that enables a range of acute painful conditions in horses to be effectively identified. Using valid assessment methods to identify pain in horses is of a clear importance; however, the reliability of the assessment is highly dependent on the assessors' ability to use it. Training of new assessors plays a critical role in underpinning reliability. The aim of the study was to evaluate whether a 30-minute standardised training program on HGS is effective at improving the agreement between observers with no horse experi...
Schumacher J, Cole RC, DeGraves FJ, Cofield LG.To compare the speed of onset and analgesic effect of mepivacaine deposited within or immediately outside the neurovascular bundle at the base of the proximal sesamoid bones in horses. Methods: 6 horses with naturally occurring forefoot-related lameness. Methods: In a crossover study design, horses were randomly assigned to receive 1 of 2 treatments first, with the second treatment administered 3 to 7 days later. Trotting gait was analyzed with an inertial sensor-based motion analysis system immediately before treatment to determine degree of lameness. Afterward, ultrasound guidance was used t...
McCracken MJ, Schumacher J, Doherty TJ, Sun X, Nichols CL, Olivarez J.To determine the efficacy and duration of effect for liposomal bupivacaine following perineural administration to the medial and lateral palmar digital nerves of horses. Methods: 9 nonlame mares. Methods: For each horse, 2 mL of liposomal bupivacaine (13.3 mg/mL; total dose, 53.2 mg or approx 0.11 mg/kg) or sterile saline (0.9% NaCl) solution was injected adjacent to the medial and lateral palmar digital nerves at the level of the distal aspect of the proximal sesamoid bones of a randomly selected forelimb. Twenty-one days later, the opposite treatment was administered in the contralateral for...
Cox S, Sommardahl C, Fortner C, Davis R, Bergman J, Doherty T.Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are inhibitors of cyclooxygenase (COX) in tissues and used as therapeutic agents in different species. Grapiprant, a member of the piprant class of compounds, antagonizes prostaglandin receptors. It is a highly selective EP4 prostaglandin E receptor inhibitor, thereby limiting the potential for adverse effects caused by wider COX inhibition. The objectives of this study were to determine if the approved canine dose would result in measurable concentrations in horses, and to validate a chromatographic method of analysis for grapiprant in urine and plasma. M...
Sampaio BFB, DeRossi R, Vieira N, Milan B, Ávila LG.The objective of the study was to compare the effects of caudal epidural bupivacaine and dexmedetomidine (DEX) combination, with bupivacaine or DEX plain for perineal analgesia in mares. Six healthy saddle mares weighing 330-370 kg and aged 10-15 years were used in this study. Each mare was assigned to receive three treatments: 0.04 mg/kg 0.25% bupivacaine (BP), 2 μg/kg DEX (DX), or 0.02 mg/kg bupivacaine and 1 μg/kg DEX (BPDX). The order of treatments was randomized. All drugs were injected into the caudal epidural space (Co1-Co2) through a 16-G Tuohy epidural needle. After the epidur...
Cantatore F, Marcatili M, Pagliara E, Bertuglia A, Withers J. This article evaluates and compares the diffusion pattern of radiopaque contrast medium following perineural analgesia of the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve performed using two different techniques: weight-bearing or flexed. Methods: This was an experimental study. Methods: Eight horses were enrolled. Perineural injection of the right and left deep branch lateral plantar nerves was performed with a weight-bearing or flexed technique, using radiopaque contrast medium (iohexol). Radiographic evaluation was performed after 5 (T5), 15 (T15) and 30 (T30) minutes. The diffusion o...
Küls N, Trujanovic R, Otero PE, Larenza-Menzies MP.Colic surgery is one of the most painful procedures carried out in horses. Common strategies to alleviate immediate postsurgical abdominal pain include the administration of potent systemic analgesics; however, these may cause unwanted adverse effects such as cardiovascular depression, ileus, and ataxia. The administration of local anesthetics at the incision site in form of an ultrasound-guided subcostal transversus abdominis plane (TAP) block may therefore be preferred to provide adequate analgesia without significant side effects. To date, no technique for a TAP block in horses undergoing m...
Mellor DJ.A proposition addressed here is that, although bitted horses are viewed by many equestrians as being largely free of bit-related mouth pain, it seems likely that most behavioural signs of such pain are simply not recognised. Background information is provided on the following: the major features of pain generation and experience; cerebrocortical involvement in the conscious experience of pain by mammals; the numerous other subjective experiences mammals can have; adjunct physiological responses to pain; some general feature of behavioural responses to pain; and the neural bases of sensations g...
Crandall A, Hopster K, Grove A, Levine D.In horses undergoing castration, direct comparison of intratesticular lidocaine vs mepivacaine as analgesic adjuncts has not yet been analysed. Objective: To compare the effects of intratesticular lidocaine and mepivacaine during equine castration using the Henderson drill under total intravenous anesthesia. Methods: Randomised, double-blinded clinical study. Methods: Thirty-four stallions were anaesthetised using xylazine-ketamine and randomly selected to receive 10 mL either lidocaine or mepivacaine injected into each testicle. Both surgeon and anaesthetist were blinded to the selected trea...
Braucke AFGV, Frederiksen NL, Berg LC, Aarsvold S, Müller FC, Boesen MP, Lindegaard C.Joint pain and osteoarthritis (OA) are some of the most common causes of lameness in horses, and most of the available treatments focus on symptomatic relief without a disease-modifying effect. TRPV1 is a potential target for treating joint diseases, including OA, and the present study aims to investigate if the TRPV1 receptor is present in equine articular tissue and determine whether the number of receptors is upregulated in joint inflammation. Metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal (MCP/MTP) joints from 15 horses euthanised for reasons unrelated to this study were included. Based on synovial fluid a...
Gutierrez-Nibeyro SD, Werpy NM, Gold SJ, Olguin S, Schaeffer DJ.Foot pain is a common presenting complaint in Warmblood horses. The aim of this retrospective, cross-sectional study was to determine the spectrum of foot lesions detected by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in Warmblood horses used for dressage, jumping, and eventing. The medical records of 550 Warmblood horses with foot pain that were scanned using standing MRI were reviewed and the following data were recorded: signalment, occupation, lameness, diagnostic analgesia, imaging results, treatments, and follow-up assessments. Associations between standing MRI lesions and chronic lameness followi...
Touzot-Jourde G, Geffroy O, Tallaj A, Gauthier O, Denoix JM. To describe the feasibility and dye diffusion of selective perineural injection of the 7 and 8th cervical nerve (C7 and C8) under ultrasonographic guidance in horses. Prospective experimental pilot cadaver study. Four equine cadavers of similar body weight (420-480 kg) and neck conformation. Five C7 and five C8 were perineurally injected with a dye solution. Anatomic dissections including vertebral canal opening were conducted to confirm nerve dye staining and describe the extent of color diffusion. The of the spinal cervical nerves was visualized in all cadavers. All the injections we...
van Dierendonck MC, Burden FA, Rickards K, van Loon JPAM.Objective pain assessment in donkeys is of vital importance for improving welfare in a species that is considered stoic. This study presents the construction and testing of two pain scales, the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Donkey Composite Pain Assessment (EQUUS-DONKEY-COMPASS) and the Equine Utrecht University Scale for Donkey Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-DONKEY-FAP), in donkeys with acute pain. A cohort follow-up study using 264 adult donkeys ( = 12 acute colic, = 25 acute orthopaedic pain, = 18 acute head-related pain, = 24 postoperative pain, and = 185 controls) was performe...
Mendez-Angulo JL, Granados MM, Modesto R, Serrano-Rodriguez JM, Funes FJ, Quiros S, Gomez-Villamandos RJ, Zaldívar S, Trumble TN.Local anaesthetics are being combined clinically with amikacin in intravenous regional limb perfusion (IVRLP), with limited knowledge on the analgesia provided and its onset and duration of action after tourniquet application and release. Objective: To evaluate the systemic clinical effect, limb withdrawal to nociceptive stimulation, and plasma and synovial fluid concentrations after IVRLP with lidocaine or mepivacaine in standing sedated horses. Methods: Prospective, controlled, randomised, cross-over study. Methods: Six healthy adult horses were sedated and received IVRLP with lidocaine, mep...
Fugazzola MC, van Weeren PR.Focal cartilaginous and osteochondral lesions can have traumatic or chondropathic degenerative origin. The fibrocartilaginous repair tissue that forms naturally, eventually undergoes fibrillation and degeneration leading to further disruption of joint homeostasis. Both types of lesion will therefore eventually lead to activity-related pain, swelling and decreased mobility and will frequently progress to osteoarthritis. Most attempts at realising cartilage regeneration have so far resulted in cartilage repair (and not regeneration). The aim of this article was to review experimental research on...
Morgan JM, Ross MW, Levine DG, Stefanovski D, You Y, Robinson MA, Davidson EJ.To facilitate lameness evaluation, sedatives such as xylazine and acepromazine are regularly used in the clinical setting, despite concerns that they may confound lameness assessment. Objective: The objective of this study was to determine the effect of low doses of acepromazine and xylazine on subjective and objective lameness assessment. Methods: Randomised, blinded, crossover study. Methods: Six horses with experimentally induced solar pain were evaluated over a 1-hour period after treatment with intravenous xylazine (0.1 or 0.2 mg/kg), intravenous acepromazine (0.02 or 0.04 mg/kg), intra...
Lesimple C.Animal welfare is defined as a chronic state reflecting an individual's subjective perception of its situation. Because it is possible to be in a good welfare state and nevertheless experience acute fear or pain, and conversely, short-term positive emotions can be experienced during impaired welfare states, welfare as a chronic state has to be clearly distinguished from temporary states related to emotions, pain or stress. The evaluation of non-verbal individuals' welfare state, particularly in interspecific situations, is a real challenge that necessarily implies animal-based measures and req...
Gold JR, Grubb TL, Green S, Cox S, Villarino NF.In humans, gabapentin an analgesic, undergoes non-proportional pharmacokinetics which can alter efficacy. No information exists on the pharmacokinetics of dosages >20 mg/kg, escalating dosages or dose proportionality of gabapentin in horses. Objective: Gabapentin exposure in plasma would not increase proportionally relative to the dose in horses receiving dosages ≥20 mg/kg. To assess the plasma pharmacokinetics of gabapentin after nasogastric administration of gabapentin at dosages of 10 to 160 mg/kg in adult horses. Methods: Nine clinically healthy adult Arabian and Quarter Horses....
Souto MTM, Fantoni DT, Hamaji A, Hamaji M, Vendruscolo CP, Otsuki DA, Pinto ACB, Ambrósio AM.To develop a technique for ultrasound-guided continuous median and ulnar peripheral nerve block in horses. Methods: Anatomical and prospective experimental study. Methods: A total of 16 thoracic limbs from horse cadavers and 18 adult horses. Methods: This study was conducted in three phases. Phase 1: Dissection of median and ulnar nerves in the antebrachial region of two cadaver limbs to identify localizing landmarks. Description of sonoanatomy in 14 cadaver limbs using ultrasound-guided perineural infiltration of a combination of cellulose gel (5 mL), contrast medium (4 mL) and methylene blue...
Bogard F, Bouchet B, Murer S, Filliard JR, Beaumont F, Polidori G.Cold therapy is commonly used to relieve pain and inflammation and to aid in muscle recovery after exercise in human medicine. A number of applications have also been observed in veterinary practice. In this article, a critical evaluation of equine protocol applied with a new commercial concept of equine whole-body cryostimulation (WBC) was made. With this new concept of WBC, the protocol usually utilized for relieving pain and discomfort in humans has been extended to horses. The investigations described herein focus on the reduction of horse skin temperature when applying human WBC protocols...
Torcivia C, McDonnell S.Horses have evolved to show little indication of discomfort or disability when in the presence of potential predators, including humans. This natural characteristic complicates the recognition of pain in equine patients. It has been our clinical impression that, whenever a person is present, horses tend to "perk up" and ongoing discomfort behavior (DB) more or less ceases. The objective of this study was to quantitatively evaluate and describe this effect. For each of 20 orthopedic surgical patients, continuous 24-h video was reviewed to record all occurrences of DB during a caretaker visit (3...
Zamboulis DE, Senior JM, Clegg PD, Gallagher JA, Carter SD, Milner PI.Purinergic pathways are considered important in pain transmission, and P2X receptors are a key part of this system which has received little attention in the horse. The aim of this study was to identify and characterise the distribution of P2X receptor subtypes in the equine digit and associated vasculature and nervous tissue, including peripheral nerves, dorsal root ganglia and cervical spinal cord, using PCR, Western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry. mRNA signal for most of the tested P2X receptor subunits (P2X1-5, 7) was detected in all sampled equine tissues, whereas P2X6 receptor su...
da Silva Xavier AA, da Rosa PP, de Brum Mackmill L, Roll VFB.For several years, hyaluronic acid (HyA) and, more recently, polyacrylamide hydrogel (PHyd) have been used to reduce lameness and pain caused by osteoarthritis. However, there is still a lack of scientific evidence of the efficacy of these substances to allow veterinary experts to make decisions about their use in horses. The objective of this study was to evaluate, through a systematic review and network meta-analysis (NMA), the efficacy of HyA, associated or not with other drugs, and PHyd in relieving lameness in horses with osteoarthritis. The searches for primary studies were conducted on ...
Dalla Costa E, Dai F, Lecchi C, Ambrogi F, Lebelt D, Stucke D, Ravasio G, Ceciliani F, Minero M.Pain in horses is an emergent welfare concern, and its assessment represents a challenge for equine clinicians. This study aimed at improving pain assessment in horses through a convergent validation of existing tools: we investigated whether an effective analgesic treatment influences the horse grimace scale (HGS) and the concentration of specific circulating microRNAs (miRNAs). Eleven stallions underwent routine surgical castration under general anaesthesia. They were divided into two analgesic treatment groups: castration with the administration of preoperative flunixin and castration with ...
Pauwels FF, Hawkins JF, MacHarg MA, Rothenbuhler RD, Baird DK, Moulton JS.3 Horses were examined and treated because of sudden onset of signs of abdominal pain. Results: All horses had a retrosternal (Morgagni) hernia involving the right side of the diaphragm. In each horse, the large colon was incarcerated in a right muscular defect in the diaphragm with a large hernial sac. Results: Definitive surgical repair of the hernia was not performed during the initial celiotomy. The hernia was repaired with mesh herniorrhaphy, but without resection of the hernia sac in 2 horses. For 1 horse, conservative management was applied. In the 2 horses treated with surgical correct...
Quiney L, Stewart J, Routh J, Dyson S.There is a lack of understanding of the pathological and/or physiological nature of lumbosacral region pain. Objective: To describe the gross variations of the osseous and soft tissues of the lumbosacral region and report the histological findings of sections of nerve tissue in affected and control horses. Methods: Descriptive post-mortem case series. Methods: All horses had undergone full clinical and gait assessment, including ridden exercise. Horses with a substantial response to infiltration of local anaesthetic solution around the sacroiliac joint regions were included in the affected gro...
Chen JW, Stefanovski D, Haughan J, Jiang Z, Boston R, Soma LR, Robinson MA.Extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT) can potentially mask painful injuries in equine athletes. Tests to detect whether a horse has received ESWT prior to competition are needed. Extracorporeal shockwave therapy is known to affect inflammatory mediators in other species, and if these mediators are altered in the horse, these could serve as biomarkers of ESWT. Objective: To test the hypothesis that a single application of ESWT will alter the circulating protein concentrations of 10 inflammatory mediators in horse plasma. Methods: Prospective repeated measures experimental study. Methods: Elev...
Clark JO, Clark TP.Critical to reducing patient morbidity as well as heightened ethical awareness, alleviation of pain in animals has become integral to medical case management and surgical procedures. Pharmacotherapy is directed at peripheral nociceptors, primary and secondary spinal neurons, and pain-processing areas in the CNS. Accordingly, three primary pharmacologic strategies have evolved: drugs that bind to and activate opioid receptors, drugs that bind to and activate alpha 2 receptors, and drugs that reduce de novo prostaglandin synthesis. In horses, the two predominant types of pain encountered are mus...
Keoughan CG, Rodgerson DH, Brown MP.To describe a hand-assisted, laparoscopic technique to remove the left kidney in standing horses. Methods: Prospective evaluation. Methods: Eight horses. Methods: Food was withheld for a minimum of 12 hours. Horses were sedated with detomidine hydrochloride (0.01-0.02 mg/kg, intravenously) and restrained in standing stocks. The left paralumbar fossa was prepared for surgery, and the surgical site was infiltrated with 2% mepivacaine. Hand-assisted, laparoscopic removal of the left kidney was performed through an incision in the center of the paralumbar fossa; the surgeon's hand was used to isol...
Rangel-Nava A, Ramírez-Uribe JM, Recillas-Morales S, Ibancovichi-Camarillo JA, Venebra-Muñoz A, Sánchez-Aparicio P.The objective of the study was to conduct a review of the pharmacological regulation and pharmacokinetic parameters of firocoxib when administered orally or intravenously in horses. A search for literature was done in SCOPUS and PubMed for studies that had to evaluate the pharmacological regulation as well as the pharmacokinetic parameters of firocoxib when administered in horses. The nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretics, and antiendotoxic effects. The newly developed is selective to COX2 characterized by less adverse effects in veterinary patien...
Elzer EJ, Wulster KB, Richardson DW, Ortved KF.A 15-year-old Thoroughbred gelding was presented for investigation of fever, right temporomandibular region swelling, and progressive pain when opening the mouth. Right temporomandibular joint (TMJ) sepsis was diagnosed based on synovial fluid analysis, sonographic imaging, and standing robotic cone-beam computed tomography. Concurrent otitis media and temporohyoid osteoarthropathy (THO) were also noted. The horse was treated with arthroscopic debridement and lavage during standing sedation followed by local and systemic antimicrobial therapy. There were no complications associated with the su...
Burbage J, Cameron L.For female horse riders, breast pain, bra issues and breast size may be important concerns which have yet to be considered. This study aimed to establish the prevalence of breast pain and bra issues in female horse riders and explores the impact of breast size on breast pain and bra issues. A 6-part, 32 question online survey was completed by 1324 females who participated in horse riding activities. Descriptive and chi-squared (χ) analyses were utilised; data for 1265 participants were included in the final analysis. Breast pain was experienced by 40% of all participants and this was signific...
Lemonnier LC, Thorin C, Meurice A, Dubus A, Touzot-Jourde G, Couroucé A, Leroux AA.The analgesic efficacy of meloxicam and ketoprofen against equine visceral pain is unclear. The aim of this study was to compare the analgesic efficacy of meloxicam (M) and ketoprofen (K) to flunixin meglumine (F) following inguinal castration. Horses undergoing inguinal castration under general anesthesia were randomly assigned F (1.1 mg/kg), M (0.6 mg/kg) or K (2.2 mg/kg) intravenously two hours pre-operatively and 24 h later. A pain score (out of 31) was recorded blindly by a senior clinician and veterinary student before NSAIDs administration (T0), and after the first (T1) and second (T2) ...
Niemelä TM, Tulamo RM, Carmona JU, López C.Inflammatory and degenerative activity inside the joint can be studied in vivo by analysis of synovial fluid biomarkers. In addition to pro-inflammatory mediators, several anabolic and anti-inflammatory substances are produced during the disease process. They counteract the catabolic effects of the pro-inflammatory cytokines and thus diminish the cartilage damage. The response of synovial fluid biomarkers after intra-articular hyaluronan injection, alone or in combination with other substances, has been examined only in a few equine studies. The effects of hyaluronan on some pro-inflammatory m...
Riquelme G, Sepúlveda JM, Al Ghumgham Z, Del Campo M, Montero C, Lagos N.Local anesthesia is an effective method to control pain. Neosaxitoxin is a phycotoxin whose molecular mechanism includes a reversible inhibition of voltage-gated sodium channels at the axonal level, impeding nerve impulse propagation. The present study was designed to evaluate the clinical efficacy of Neosaxitoxin as a local long-acting pain blocker in horse bucked shins, and it was found to effectively control pain. While Neosaxitoxin and Gonyautoxin, another Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSP) toxin, have been successfully used in humans as long-lasting pain blockers, this finding marks the fir...
Hurcombe SD.Hypothalamic-pituitary (HP) dysfunction has been documented in a limited capacity in horses and foals associated with critical illness, stress, and pain. This article reviews species-specific details of anatomy, function, hormones, receptors, and testing of the HP axis in the horse. A discussion of critical care medicine relevant to HP dysfunction in the horse with some reference to current understanding in human medicine is made, focusing primarily on current and relevant literature. A brief mention of other conditions described in human and veterinary medicine is also provided for reference ...
Gobbi FP, Di Filippo PA, Mello LM, Lemos GB, Martins CB, Albernaz AP, Quirino CR.This study is "aimed" to evaluate and compare the efficacy of flunixin meglumine (FM), firocoxib (FX), and meloxicam (MX) after castration of horses. Thirty horses were submitted to open castration and divided into three groups (n = 10) depending on the anti-inflammatory drug administered: group I (GI) (FM, 1.1 mg kg1, IV, once a day [SID], 5 days); group II (GII) (FX, 0.1 mg kg1, IV, SID, 5 days), and group III (GIII) (MX, 0.6 mg kg1, IV, SID, 5 days). Clinical, behavioral, and hematological parameters and the peritoneal fluid (PF) were evaluated before (day [D] 0) and 1, 2, 3, 5, a...
Love EJ, Taylor PM, Murrell J, Whay HR, Waterman-Pearson AE.The aim of this randomised, observer-blinded, crossover study was to compare the effects of six treatments, administered intravenously to six horses: saline and saline (S/S); detomidine and saline (D/S); detomidine and 5 µg/kg buprenorphine (D/B5); detomidine and 7.5 µg/kg buprenorphine (D/B7.5); detomidine and 10 µg/kg buprenorphine (D/B10); and detomidine and 25 µg/kg butorphanol (D/BUT). The detomidine dose was 10 µg/kg for all treatments in which it was included. Sedation was subjectively assessed and recorded on a visual analogue scale. Peak sedation, duration of sedation and the are...
Kil N, Ertelt K, Auer U.Changes in behaviour are often caused by painful conditions. Therefore, the assessment of behaviour is important for the recognition of pain, but also for the assessment of quality of life. Automated detection of movement and the behaviour of a horse in the box stall should represent a significant advancement. In this study, videos of horses in an animal hospital were recorded using an action camera and a time-lapse mode. These videos were processed using the convolutional neural network Loopy for automated prediction of body parts. Development of the model was carried out in several steps, in...
Bundgaard L, Sørensen MA, Nilsson T, Salling E, Jacobsen S.In the last decades, a well-established equine wound model has been used to study fibroproliferative wound healing disorders. The aim of this study was to characterize the degree of discomfort of wounding and sampling in an equine excisional wound model by evaluating systemic and local inflammatory responses and signs of pain. A total of 12 cutaneous wounds, three on each shoulder and each metatarsus, were created in a standing surgical procedure. Wounds were biopsied on days 2, 4, 7, 14, 21, and 28 after surgery. Clinical parameters (rectal temperature, heart rate, respiratory frequency) and ...
Spadavecchia C, Arendt-Nielsen L, Andersen OK, Spadavecchia L, Doherr M, Schatzmann U.To compare nociceptive withdrawal reflexes (NWRs) evoked from the distal aspect of the left forelimb and hind limb in conscious standing horses and to investigate NWR recruitment for graded electrical stimulation intensities. Methods: 20 adult horses. Methods: Surface electromyographic (EMG) activity evoked by transcutaneous electrical stimulation of the digital palmar (or plantar) nerve was recorded from the common digital extensor and cranial tibial muscles. Stimuli consisted of 25-millisecond train-of-5 constant current pulses. Current intensity was gradually increased until NWR threshold i...
Martin-Flores M, Campoy L, Kinsley MA, Mohammed HO, Gleed RD, Cheetham J.To evaluate the hypothesis that epidural morphine (0.1 mg kg(-1) ) decreases pain in horses after laparoscopic surgery without adversely affecting gastrointestinal (GI) motility. Methods: Randomized clinical trial. Methods: Eighteen horses undergoing laparoscopic cryptorchidectomy under general anesthesia. Methods: Horses were randomly assigned to receive either epidural morphine (0.1 mg kg(-1) ) or no epidural before the start of surgery. Pain behaviors were assessed during the first two post-operative days using a numerical rating scale. Barium-filled spheres were administered through a naso...
Mills PC, Cross SE.The rate and regional differences for the penetration of fentanyl through equine skin was investigated in vitro using a commercial transdermal therapeutic system (TTS) or 'patch'. Skin collected from the thorax, groin and leg (dorsal metacarpal) regions of five horses was placed in diffusion cells and a fentanyl TTS applied to each skin sample. Drug penetration through each skin sample over 48 h measured using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Cumulative penetration (microg/cm2) was plotted against time (h) and used to regress the steady state flux (microg/cm2/h) of fentanyl throu...
Dyson S.Clinical, ultrasonographic and radiographic features of proximal suspensory desmitis in the forelimb and the hindlimb are described. Acute cases may present with slight, localised, oedematous swelling, heat, distension of the medial palmar (plantar) vein and/or pain, whereas chronic cases or those rested immediately after onset of lameness usually have no detectable clinical signs suggestive of the source of pain. In these cases local analgesia is required to identify pain in the proximal metacarpal (metatarsal) region. Transverse ultrasonographic images of the suspensory ligament usually yiel...
Love EJ, Taylor PM, Whay HR, Murrell J.Buprenorphine has recently obtained UK Marketing Authorisation for horses. The analgesic effects are long lasting, and have considerable potential for postoperative pain relief. This observer blinded, randomised study aimed to evaluate postsurgical analgesia in ponies premedicated with buprenorphine prior to castration under intravenous anaesthesia. Ponies received either 0.01 mg/kg bodyweight (BW) buprenorphine (group B) or an equivalent volume of 5 per cent glucose (group C) given intravenously before induction of anaesthesia. Pain was assessed and recorded using dynamic interactive visual a...
Andersen MS, Clark L, Dyson SJ, Newton JR.Post anaesthetic colic is a recognised risk of general anaesthesia (GA), but causes are poorly understood. Objective: To identify risk factors for development of colic following GA for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or nonabdominal surgery and to test whether the use of perianaesthetic morphine was associated with an increased risk of post anaesthetic colic. Methods: A total of 553 anaesthetic and clinical records of 500 horses anaesthetised at the Animal Health Trust were analysed, 342 (62%) involved MRI and 211 (38%) nonabdominal, predominantly orthopaedic surgery. Multivariable logistic r...
Sponseller BT, Valberg SJ, Tennent-Brown BS, Foreman JH, Kumar P, Timoney JF.Four Quarter Horses (9 months to 7 years of age) with submandibular lymphadenopathy and firm muscles (palpation of which elicited signs of pain) were evaluated; in general, the horses had a stiff gait, and 3 horses became recumbent. Streptococcus equi was cultured from aspirates of lymph nodes or samples of purulent material collected from the auditory tube diverticula. Once the horses were recumbent, their condition deteriorated rapidly despite aggressive antimicrobial and antiinflammatory treatment, necessitating euthanasia within 24 to 48 hours. One horse did not become recumbent and recove...
Love EJ, Lane JG, Murison PJ.To determine the effect of morphine administration on commonly monitored cardio-respiratory variables and recovery quality in horses undergoing anaesthesia and surgery. Methods: Prospective, randomized clinical study. Methods: Thirty-eight thoroughbred horses, 32 geldings and six mares, 3-13 years old, weighing 411-600 kg. Methods: A standard anaesthetic technique was used. Twenty minutes after induction of anaesthesia horses received 0.1 mg kg(-1) (0.1 m) or 0.2 mg kg(-1) (0.2 m) morphine by intravenous injection. A control group did not receive morphine. Heart rate, respiratory rate (fr), me...
Schatzman U, Armbruster S, Stucki F, Busato A, Kohler I.The analgesic potency of butorphanol 25 microg/kg bodyweight (BW) and levomethadone 100 microg/kg BW, administered together with detomidine 10 microg/kg BW, was measured in twelve Warmblood horses in a randomized, blinded cross-over study. Detomidine with saline 10 ml 0.9% was used as placebo. The nociceptive threshold was determined using a constant current and a pneumatic pressure model for somatic pair Detomidine alone and in combination with butorphanol or levomethadone caused a significant temporary increase (P < 0.05) of the nociceptive threshold with a maximum effect within 15 min and a...
Jordana M, Martens A, Duchateau L, Vanderperren K, Saunders J, Oosterlinck M, Pille F.Controversy exists about the desensitisation obtained after diagnostic analgesia of the digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS) during lameness examinations. Objective: To determine whether DFTS analgesia results in inadvertent desensitisation of the palmar/plantar digital nerves and whether this depends on the injection technique used. Methods: Crossover experimental study. Methods: The DFTS of 9 horses were injected with local anaesthetic solution and radiodense contrast medium using one of the following techniques: Proximal (at lateral proximal recess of the DFTS), Axial (axial to the lateral p...
Dhanjal JK, Wilson DV, Robinson E, Tobin TT, Dirikolu L, Dirokulu L.To determine the optimal dose, serum concentrations and analgesic effects of intravenous (IV) tramadol in the horse. Two-phase blinded, randomized, prospective crossover trial. Seven horses (median age 22.5 years and mean weight 565 kg). Horses were treated every 20 minutes with incremental doses of tramadol HCl (0.1-1.6 mg kg(-1)) or with saline. Heart rate, respiratory rate, step frequency, head height, and sweating, trembling, borborygmus and head nodding scores were recorded before and up to 6 hours after treatment. In a second study, hoof withdrawal and skin twitch reflex latencies (HWRL ...
