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Topic:Tendons
Tendons in horses are fibrous connective tissues that attach muscles to bones, facilitating movement and providing stability to the musculoskeletal system. They are composed primarily of collagen fibers, which confer strength and flexibility, allowing horses to perform various physical activities. Equine tendons are subject to significant mechanical stress during locomotion, making them susceptible to injury, particularly in performance horses. Common tendon injuries include strains, tears, and tendinitis, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the structure, function, and pathology of tendons in horses, as well as advancements in diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for tendon injuries.
Subjective and quantitative scintigraphic assessment of the equine foot and its relationship with foot pain. It was hypothesised that in solar bone images of the front feet of clinically normal horses, or horses with lameness unrelated to the front feet, there would be less than a 10% difference in the ratio of uptake of radiopharmaceutical in either the region of the navicular bone, or the region of insertion of the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT), compared to the peripheral regions of the distal phalanx. Nuclear scintigraphic examination of the front feet of 15 Grand Prix show jumping horses, all of which were free from detectable lameness, was performed using dorsal, lateral and solar images. Th...
An evaluation of two autologous tendon grafting techniques in ponies. To compare the healing and mechanical strength of a multiple split autologous tendon graft (MG) to a whole autologous tendon graft (WG) in the deep digital flexor tendon of ponies. Methods: In vitro evaluation of two different tendon-grafting techniques. Methods: Six ponies of mixed gender and age. Methods: Tenotomies performed in forelimb deep digital flexor tendons (DDFT) distal to the insertion of the accessory ligament (AL-DDFT) were repaired with free autologous grafts from the hindlimb lateral digital extensor tendon (LDET). Grafts were either whole (WG) or split into three longitudinal ...
A lipoma of the extensor tendon sheaths in a horse. This report describes the identification and surgical removal of a lipoma from the extensor tendon sheaths of a horse. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of a lipoma of the extensor tendon sheaths of a horse. Ultrasonographic evaluation was crucial to patient management, providing information regarding the soft tissue mass characteristics, tumor margins and synovial involvement prior to surgical exploration. Surgical removal was performed and was curative.
Microanatomic characteristics of the insertion of the distal sesamoidean impar ligament and deep digital flexor tendon on the distal phalanx in healthy feet obtained from horses. To describe microanatomic characteristics of the insertion of the aistal sesamoidean impar ligament (DSIL) and deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) on the distal phalanx in horses. Methods: Healthy feet obtained from 62 horses of various breeds. Methods: Feet from 23 horses were used to histologically examine the insertion of the DSIL and DDFT (n = 7), its vasculature (10), and neural elements (6). In 39 other horses, the insertion zone was examined for proteoglycan. Results: The insertion of the DSIL and dorsal half of the DDFT contained bundles of collagen fibers with intervening loose connecti...
Evaluation of tachykinins and their receptors to determine sensory innervation in the dorsal hoof wall and insertion of the distal sesamoidean impar ligament and deep digital flexor tendon on the distal phalanx in healthy feet of horses. To localize substance P (SP) and neurokinin A (NKA) and their receptors in the insertion of the distal sesamoidean impar ligament (DSIL), deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT), and dorsal hoof wall of healthy feet of horses. Methods: 18 healthy feet from horses. Methods: Samples from the dorsal hoof wall and insertion of the DSIL and DDFT of 10 feet were processed for immunocytochemical analysis, using rabbit polyclonal antisera raised against SP and NKA. Tissue sections from 8 feet were incubated with 125-labeled SP to localize tachykinin receptors and their specificity and with control solutions...
Damper for bad vibrations. This research presents the hypothesis and findings that short muscle fibers in horses and other large mammals may protect bones and tendons from damaging vibrations during running, negating the previous [...]
Horses damp the spring in their step. The muscular work of galloping in horses is halved by storing and returning elastic strain energy in spring-like muscle-tendon units.These make the legs act like a child's pogo stick that is tuned to stretch and recoil at 2.5 strides per second. This mechanism is optimized by unique musculoskeletal adaptations: the digital flexor muscles have extremely short fibres and significant passive properties, whereas the tendons are very long and span several joints. Length change occurs by a stretching of the spring-like digital flexor tendons rather than through energetically expensive length changes...
Ultrasonography of the podotrochlear apparatus in the horse using a transcuneal approach: technique and reference images. The purpose of this paper is to describe the technique for ultrasonographic examination of the podotrochlear apparatus in the horse using a transcuneal approach. In this study, ultrasound scans were performed in 3 normal cadaver limbs and 5 sound horses and images were compared to anatomic sections to establish the normal ultrasonographic anatomy of the podotrochlear apparatus. Detailed description of transverse and sagittal reference ultrasonographic images of this region is provided. This new imaging technique allows the assessment of the distal sesamoid bone flexor surface, the distal porti...
Effects of exercise on biomechanical properties of the superficial digital flexor tendon in foals. To determine the effects of exercise on biomechanical properties of the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) in foals. Methods: 43 Dutch Warmblood foals. Methods: From 1 week until 5 months of age, 14 foals were housed in stalls and not exercised, 14 foals were housed in stalls and exercised daily, and 15 foals were maintained at pasture. Eight foals in each group were euthanatized at 5 months, and remaining foals were housed together in a stall and paddock until euthanatized at 11 months. After euthanasia, SDFT were isolated and fit in a material testing system. Mean cross-sectional area ...
Forelimb tendon loading during jump landings and the influence of fence height. Lameness in athletic horses is often caused by forelimb tendon injuries, especially in the interosseus tendon (TI) and superficial digital flexor tendon (SDF), but also in the accessory ligament (AL) of the deep digital flexor tendon (DDF). In an attempt to explain the aetiology of these injuries, the present study investigated the loading of the tendons during landing after a jump. In jumping horses, the highest forces can be expected in the trailing limb during landing. Therefore, landing kinematics and ground reaction forces of the trailing forelimb were measured from 6 horses jumping singl...
Effects of superior check desmotomy on flexor tendon and suspensory ligament strain in equine cadaver limbs. To measure the effects of transection of the accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor (SDF) muscle (superior check desmotomy) on flexor tendon and suspensory ligament (SL) strain in vitro. Methods: In vitro experimental biomechanical investigation. ANIMALS USED: Ten equine cadaver forelimbs. Methods: The effects of superior check desmotomy were determined using equine cadaver forelimbs secured in a servocontrolled hydraulic testing machine. Strain sensors were used to measure strain on the superficial and deep digital flexor tendons and SL, and a goniometer was used to measure join...
The role of thermography in the management of equine lameness. Equine thermography has increased in popularity recently because of improvements in thermal cameras and advances in image-processing software. The basic principle of thermography involves the transformation of surface heat from an object into a pictorial representation. The colour gradients generated reflect differences in the emitted heat. Variations from normal can be used to detect lameness or regions of inflammation in horses. Units can be so sensitive that flexor tendon injuries can be detected before the horse develops clinical lameness. Thermography has been used to evaluate several dif...
Effects of beta-aminopropionitrile on equine tendon metabolism in vitro and on effects of insulin-like growth factor-I on matrix production by equine tenocytes. To investigate effects of beta-aminopropionitrile and a combination of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I and beta-aminopropionitrile on metabolism of equine tendon fibroblasts. Methods: Flexor tendon explants from 3 horses. Methods: Explants received 1 of 4 treatments (control, IGF-I, beta-aminopropionitrile, and IGF-I/beta-aminopropionitrile) for 10 days, and message expression for collagen types I and III was assessed by use of in situ hybridization. Histologic findings, new protein production, and quantitative determinations of glycosaminoglycan, DNA, and de novo collagen synthesis were ma...
Effects of exercise on the diameter of collagen fibrils in the central core and periphery of the superficial digital flexor tendon in foals. To determine the effects of exercise on collagen fibril diameter distribution in the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) of foals. Methods: 43 Dutch Warmblood foals. Methods: From 1 week until 5 months of age, group-1 foals (n = 14) were housed in stalls and not exercised, group-2 foals (14) were housed in stalls but were exercised, and group-3 foals (15) were maintained at pasture. Biopsy specimens were collected from the SDFT at 2 months, and 8 foals in each group were euthanatized at 5 months. Remaining foals were housed together in a loose stall and paddock until euthanatized at 11 mo...
Model formulation and determination of in vitro parameters of a noninvasive method to calculate flexor tendon forces in the equine forelimb. To describe a method to calculate flexor tendon forces on the basis of inverse dynamic analysis and an in vitro model of the equine forelimb and to quantify parameters for the model. Methods: 38 forelimbs of 23 horses that each had an estimated body mass of > or = 500 kg. Methods: Longitudinal limb sections were used to determine the lines of action of the tendons. Additionally, limb and tendon loading experiments were performed to determine mechanical properties of the flexor tendons. Results: The study quantified the parameters for a pulley model to describe the lines of action. Furthermo...
Sensitivity analysis and application to trotting of a noninvasive method to calculate flexor tendon forces in the equine forelimb. To test the sensitivity to measurement and modeling errors of a method for noninvasive calculation of flexor tendon forces in the equine forelimb and to calculate tendon forces for Dutch Warmblood horses during trotting. Methods: A normative set of kinematic and ground-reaction force (GRF) data obtained from horses during trotting in another study. Methods: Forces in the flexor tendons were calculated from the data set before and after addition of fixed relative and absolute errors. Amount of error was based on normal accuracy of the variables. A similar analysis was performed for a measure of...
Racehorse injuries, clinical problems and fatalities recorded on British racecourses from flat racing and National Hunt racing during 1996, 1997 and 1998. For improvements to the safety and welfare of racehorses to be possible, it is essential to have access to basic descriptive information about the veterinary incidents encountered during horseracing. A 3 year surveillance study (1996-1998) was conducted by The Jockey Club into racing injuries, other postrace clinical problems and fatalities from all 59 British racecourses (mainland Britain only) to identify risk factors. During the survey there were 222,993 racing starts: 106,897 starts in flat races on turf (47.9%), 26,519 starts in flat races on all-weather surfaces (11.9%), 30,932 starts in...
Use of quantitative analysis of sonographic brightness for detection of early healing of tendon injury in horses. To determine whether quantitative analysis of sonographic brightness could be used to detect healing of an induced injury of the superficial digital flexor tendon in horses and whether rate of healing was influenced by equine recombinant growth hormone. Methods: 8 clinically normal Standardbreds. Methods: A localized injury was created in the left and right superficial digital flexor tendons of each horse by injection of 2,000 units of collagenase. After injury, 4 horses received equine recombinant growth hormone, a possible promoter of tendon healing. Sonographic images (7.5 MHz) of the flexo...
Superficial digital flexor tendon healing: ultrasonographic evaluation of therapies. Until recently, it was difficult to critically evaluate tendon healing in vivo. Superficial digital flexor tendon injuries were considered healed when the injured tendon was cold, non-painful, adequate time had passed for tendon healing to occur, and no recurrence of the injury was detected when the horse returned to athletic work. This article discusses how ultrasonography has revolutionized the diagnosis, treatment, and management of tendon injuries.
Joint moments in the distal forelimbs of jumping horses during landing. Tendon injuries are an important problem in athletic horses and are probably caused by excessive loading of the tendons during demanding activities. As a first step towards understanding these injuries, the tendon loading was quantified during jump landings. Kinematics and ground reaction forces were collected from the leading and trailing forelimbs of 6 experienced jumping horses. Joint moments were calculated using inverse dynamic analysis. It was found that the variation of movement and loading patterns was small, both within and between horses. The peak flexor joint moments in the coffin a...
Efficacy of computerized discrimination between structure-related and non-structure-related echoes in ultrasonographic images for the quantitative evaluation of the structural integrity of superficial digital flexor tendons in horses. To evaluate effectiveness of computerized discrimination between structure-related and non-structure-related echoes in ultrasonographic images for quantitative evaluation of tendon structural integrity in horses. Methods: 4 superficial digital flexor tendons (2 damaged tendons, 2 normal tendons). Methods: Transverse ultrasonographic images that precisely matched histologic sections were obtained in fixed steps along the long axis of each tendon. Distribution, intensity, and delineation of structure-related echoes, quantitatively expressed as the correlation ratio and steadiness ratio , were co...
[Extracorporal shock wave therapy in veterinary medicine]. This article gives a general overview on a new therapy in equine orthopedics. In human medicine extracorporal shock wave therapy (ESWT) is used for lithotripsy of stones of the urologic system and also in orthopedics. In equine medicine the therapy is almost exclusively applied for the treatment of orthopedic problems. The main indications are proximal suspensory desmitis (PSD), lesions of tendons and ligaments, osteoporotic changes and spavin. In this paper the mode of action of shock waves and the different shock wave devices are discussed. Also, some information about an ongoing clinical tr...
Use of a bioabsorbable implant for the repair of severed digital flexor tendons in four horses. A new bioabsorbable implant composed of poly-L-lactic acid was used to repair the severed digital flexor tendons of four horses. The limbs were immobilised with distal casts which were changed after six to eight weeks and removed after 12 to 16 weeks. The horses were followed clinically and ultrasonographically for from seven to 19 months after the surgery. The ultrasonographic examination after the cast had been removed showed that the implants had been well incorporated into scar tissue. Two of the horses were mildly lame at the trot seven months after the surgery, but had returned to work a...
Repeatability of diagnostic ultrasonography in the assessment of the equine superficial digital flexor tendon. A quantitative investigation of the variation that can occur during the course of ultrasonography of the equine superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFT) was undertaken. The aim of this investigation was to use an objective measure, namely the measurement of CSA, to quantify the variability occurring during the course of the ultrasonographic assessment of the equine SDFT. The effects of 3 variables on the CSA measurements were determined. 1) Image acquisition operator (IAc): two different operators undertaking the ultrasonographic examination; 2) image analysis operator (IAn): two different op...
Superficial digital flexor tendonitis in the horse. The superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) is an elastic structure that during maximal exercise appears to operate close to its functional limits. The biomechanical and biochemical responses to exercise, injury, and healing are still poorly understood but ongoing research is providing valuable new information which is addressed in this review. It appears that the SDFT matures early, after which time it has limited ability to adapt to stress and undergoes progressive degeneration. Focal hypocellularity, collagen fibril degeneration, selective fibril loading and alterations in the noncollageno...
Age-related changes and effect of exercise on the molecular composition of immature equine superficial digital flexor tendons. To test the hypothesis that exercise at very young age may influence the eventual molecular composition (and hence the biomechanical properties) of tendon tissue in the horse, 43 Dutch Warmblood foals were allotted to 3 differently exercised groups (box-rest, box-rest with training and pasture exercise). Twenty-four superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFTs) were collected at age 5 months (8 from each exercise group) and the others were obtained at 11 months after an additional period of light exercise that was equal for all remaining foals and was intended to see if any induced changes would ...
Conclusions regarding the influence of exercise on the development of the equine musculoskeletal system with special reference to osteochondrosis. This paper summarises and interrelates the findings of a large-scale multidisciplinary investigation to assess the influence of exercise on the development of the equine musculoskeletal system in general and of osteochondrosis in particular, up to age 5 months. Forty-three foals, genetically predisposed to develop OC, were divided into 3 exercise groups: box-rest, box-rest with training and free pasture exercise. At 5 months, all foals were weaned and 8 foals per group were subjected to euthanasia for postmortem examination. The remaining 19 foals were placed together and subjected to euthanas...
Treatment of traumatically induced synovial sepsis in horses with gentamicin-impregnated collagen sponges. Eight horses with synovial sepsis induced by trauma were treated by arthroscopic/tenoscopic debridement and lavage followed by the implantation of a gentamicin-impregnated collagen sponge. Seven of them responded favourably and were sound six months after treatment. The other underwent a further surgical procedure and recovered. Gentamicin-impregnated collagen sponges appear to be a safe and useful adjunct in the treatment of septic joints and tendon sheaths, and have the advantage of being bioabsorbable.
Resection of the common digital extensor tendon in a gelding. A four-year-old gelding was lame owing to a chronic septic common digital extensor tendon and sheath. The horse had been treated by open surgical lavage but the sepsis had recurred after three months. Physical, ultrasonographic, cytological and histological examinations confirmed chronic septic tenosynovitis and tendonitis. The entire intrathecal component of the common digital extensor tendon was resected under general anaesthesia and the synovial lining of the sheath was ablated. Postoperatively the horse regained good limb function and became sound.
