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Topic:Vaccination
Vaccination in horses involves the administration of antigenic material to stimulate an immune response, providing protection against specific infectious diseases. This process is a key component of preventive equine healthcare, aiming to reduce the incidence and severity of illnesses such as equine influenza, tetanus, and West Nile virus. Vaccines can be administered via various routes and may contain live attenuated, inactivated, or subunit components. The immune response elicited by vaccination helps in the development of immunological memory, enabling horses to respond more effectively upon exposure to the actual pathogen. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the development, efficacy, and safety of vaccines in equine populations.
Equine travellers to the Olympic Games in Hong Kong 2008: a review of worldwide challenges to equine health, with particular reference to vector-borne diseases. The past 10-20 years have seen exponential growth in the volume of trade in horses and equine germplasm; and the extent of global horse movements has increased significantly in the last 4 years. In preparing for the transport of elite Olympic horses to Hong Kong in 2008, it will be very important to be as fully informed as possible of the disease situation in both the exporting and importing country, import and re-entry requirements, as well as having a vaccination strategy to protect against particular diseases. In this context the review describes the equine vector-borne disease situation in...
Safety and immunogenicity of a live-attenuated auxotrophic candidate vaccine against the intracellular pathogen Rhodococcus equi. Rhodococcus equi causes serious pneumonia in neonatal foals and is an opportunistic pathogen of people with compromised cellular immunity. No effective vaccine against R. equi disease in foals is available. We tested the safety and immunogenicity of a live, fully attenuated riboflavin auxotrophic candidate vaccine strain of R. equi (R. equi rib-). We demonstrated that R. equi rib- is immunogenic and capable of inducing IFN-gamma responses in immunocompetent BALB/c mice, yet it is safe even in an immunocompromised SCID mouse infection model. Moreover, it protects immunocompetent mice against vi...
Low-dose ginseng (Panax quinquefolium) modulates the course and magnitude of the antibody response to vaccination against equid herpesvirus I in horses. The purpose of this study was to determine if ginseng fed at low levels enhances a horse's antibody response to vaccination against Equid herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1). For 28 d, 5 horses received ground, powdered ginseng (35 mg/kg body weight, 1.7 mg/kg total ginsenosides) in molasses as a carrier, and 5 received molasses only. On day 14, each horse was vaccinated against EHV-1. The time course of the antibody response to vaccination was significantly altered in the horses receiving ginseng, a clinically relevant increase in antibody titer being observed by postvaccination day 2 compared with day 6 i...
Pro-inflammatory and antiviral cytokine expression in vaccinated and unvaccinated horses exposed to equine influenza virus. Most studies of the cytokine response to influenza virus infection have been carried out in human, porcine and murine models, however the data available on equine cytokines is limited. An experimental challenge study was undertaken in unvaccinated naïve horses and horses vaccinated with a commercial inactivated influenza vaccine. The humoral antibody response to vaccination and virus challenge was measured by single radial haemolysis (SRH) assay and clinical signs of influenza and viral shedding were monitored post-challenge. Levels of three equine pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-...
Is there a benefit from an early booster vaccination in the control of equine influenza? Conventional equine influenza vaccination schedules consist of a primary course of two vaccinations given 4-6 weeks apart followed by a third vaccination (booster) given approximately 5 months later. In between the primary course and the third vaccination, horses are generally considered not to be adequately protected against influenza. This study aimed to investigate whether Thoroughbred foals would benefit from a vaccination schedule in which the third vaccination was given earlier than in conventional vaccination schedules. The vaccines used were an inactivated whole virus equine influenza ...
Equine herpesvirus-1-specific interferon gamma (IFNgamma) synthesis by peripheral blood mononuclear cells in thoroughbred horses. An assay has been developed that measures EHV-1 specific interferon gamma synthesis (IFNgamma), a cytokine produced following the activation of memory T lymphocytes and therefore a measure of cell mediated immunity. The method requires validation in the field. Objective: To measure the frequency of EHV-1 specific, IFNgamma synthesising peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in a population of Thoroughbred horses, and examine its relationship with age, gender, premises and history of vaccination or field infection with EHV-1. Methods: Lymphocytes from 200 Thoroughbred horses were stimulated ...
Efficacy of a canarypox-vectored recombinant vaccine expressing the hemagglutinin gene of equine influenza H3N8 virus in the protection of ponies from viral challenge. To determine onset and duration of immunity provided by a 2- or 3-dose series of a new canarypox-vectored recombinant vaccine for equine influenza virus (rCP-EIV vaccine) expressing the hemagglutinin genes of influenza H3N8 virus strains A/eq/Kentucky/94 and A/eq/Newmarket/2/93 in ponies. Methods: Forty-nine 1- to 3-year-old male Welsh Mountain Ponies that were seronegative for equine influenza virus. Methods: Vaccinated and control ponies were challenged with aerosolized influenza virus A/eq/Sussex/89 (H3N8), representative of the Eurasian lineage of circulating influenza viruses. In trial 1,...
Experiences with new generation vaccines against equine viral arteritis, West Nile disease and African horse sickness. Viral diseases constitute an ever growing threat to the horse industry worldwide because of the rapid movement of large numbers of horses for competition and breeding. A number of different types of vaccines are available for protective immunization of horses against viral diseases. Traditional inactivated and live-attenuated (modified live virus, MLV) virus vaccines remain popular and efficacious but recombinant vaccines are increasingly being developed and used, in part because of the perceived deficiencies of some existing products. New generation vaccines include MLVs with deletions and/or...
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine candidate (V3526) safety, immunogenicity and efficacy in horses. A new vaccine, V3526, is a live-attenuated virus derived by site-directed mutagenesis from a virulent clone of the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) IA/B Trinidad donkey (TrD) strain, intended for human use in protection against Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE). Two studies were conducted in horses to evaluate the safety, immunogenicity, ability to boost and protective efficacy of V3526 against challenges of TrD and VEEV IE 64A99. Horses were vaccinated subcutaneously (SC) with 10(7), 10(5), 10(3) or 10(2) plaque-forming units (pfu) of V3526. Control horses were sham immunized. I...
Characteristics of an outbreak of West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in a previously uninfected population of horses. Equine West Nile virus (WNV) encephalomyelitis cases - based on clinical signs and ELISA serology test results - reported to Texas disease control authorities during 2002 were analyzed to provide insights into the epidemiology of the disease within a previously disease-free population. The epidemic occurred between June 27 and December 17 (peaking in early October) and 1,698 cases were reported. Three distinct epidemic phases were identified, occurring mostly in southeast, northwest and then central Texas. Significant (P<0.05) disease clusters were identified in northwest and northern Texas...
Antibody and cellular immune responses following DNA vaccination and EHV-1 infection of ponies. Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) is the cause of serious disease with high economic impact on the horse industry, as outbreaks of EHV-1 disease occur every year despite the frequent use of vaccines. Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) are important for protection from primary and reactivating latent EHV-1 infection. DNA vaccination is a powerful technique for stimulating CTLs, and the aim of this study was to assess antibody and cellular immune responses and protection resulting from DNA vaccination of ponies with combinations of EHV-1 genes. Fifteen ponies were divided into three groups of five ponies...
Vaccination against equine influenza: quid novi? Equine influenza virus is a leading cause of respiratory disease in the horse. Equine influenza vaccines containing inactivated virus were first developed in the 1960s. Despite their intensive use, equine influenza outbreaks still continue to occur and therefore new strategies of vaccination are necessary to improve vaccine efficacy. Numerous methods of vaccination have been evaluated and commercialised in the horse, the most recent being the cold-adapted influenza virus and poxvirus-based vaccines. As a large animal model, the horse is also a useful species in which to evaluate the potential ...
Protective effect of vaccination with recombinant proteins from Streptococcus equi subspecies equi in a strangles model in the mouse. A mouse model resembling Streptococcus equi subspecies equi infection in the horse, strangles, was used to assess the protective effect of vaccination with selected recombinant proteins from S. equi subsp. equi. After challenge the infection was monitored by weight loss and by nasal colonisation with S. equi subsp. equi. Vaccination with a collagen-binding protein (CNE) and a collagen-like protein (SclC) resulted in protective antibodies, whereas a novel fibronectin-binding protein (FNEB) did not. Co-administration of CNE with EAG, a poorly immunogenic alpha2-macroglobulin-, albumin- and immun...
The equine immune response to equine herpesvirus-1: the virus and its vaccines. Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) is an alphaherpesvirus which infects horses, causing respiratory and neurological disease and abortion in pregnant mares. Latency is established in trigeminal ganglia and lymphocytes. Immunity to EHV-1 lasts between 3 and 6 months. Current vaccines, many of which contain inactivated virus, have reduced the incidence of abortion storms in pregnant mares but individual animals, which may be of high commercial value, remain susceptible to infection. The development of effective vaccines which stimulate both humoral and cellular immune responses remains a priority. Uti...
Evaluation of factors associated with positive IgM capture ELISA results in equids with clinical signs compatible with West Nile virus infection: 1,017 cases (2003). To describe the prevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) infection and evaluate factors associated with positive IgM capture ELISA results in equids with clinical signs compatible with WNV infection. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Laboratory submission forms from 1,104 equids tested for WNV in Colorado in 2003. Methods: Submission forms accompanying samples submitted for detection of WNV via IgM capture ELISA were obtained from the Colorado state veterinarian and diagnostic laboratories performing the tests. Data on signalment, clinical signs, history of vaccination against WNV, and a...
Characterisation of CTL and IFN-gamma synthesis in ponies following vaccination with a NYVAC-based construct coding for EHV-1 immediate early gene, followed by challenge infection. Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) is a ubiquitous pathogen of horses, which continues to cause respiratory and neurological disease and abortion, despite the widespread use of vaccines. Cell mediated immunity (CMI) is thought to play a major role in protection against infection with EHV-1. The aim of this study was to characterise the virus-specific CMI response in ponies vaccinated with vP1014, a vaccinia-based construct (NYVAC) coding for the immediate early gene (gene 64) of EHV-1. This gene product is a CTL target protein for an equine MHC class I allele expressed on the A3 haplotype. EHV-prime...
Analysis of yearly changes in levels of antibodies to Japanese encephalitis virus nonstructural 1 protein in racehorses in central Japan shows high levels of natural virus activity still exist. Recent reductions in numbers of human and equine Japanese encephalitis (JE) cases in Japan have seen calls to end JE vaccination. Here, we analyzed yearly variations of natural JE virus activity, using sera collected serially in 1998-2003 from racehorses residing in Ibaraki and Shiga prefectures, both located in central Japan. A total of 208 sera from 24 individuals in Ibaraki and 259 from 27 in Shiga were examined for antibodies to JE virus nonstructural 1 (NS1) protein, a marker of natural infection. The natural infection rate in epizootic seasons, which was determined by a significant incre...
The use of a systemic prime/mucosal boost strategy with an equine influenza ISCOM vaccine to induce protective immunity in horses. In horses, natural infection confers long lasting protective immunity characterised by mucosal IgA and humoral IgGa and IgGb responses. In order to investigate the potential of locally administered vaccine to induce a protective IgA response, responses generated by vaccination with an immunostimulating complex (ISCOM)-based vaccine for equine influenza (EQUIP F) containing A/eq/Newmarket/77 (H7N7), A/eq/Borlänge/91 (H3N8) and A/eq/Kentucky/98 (H3N8) using a systemic prime/mucosal boost strategy were studied. Seven ponies in the vaccine group received EQUIP F vaccine intranasally 6 weeks after...
Virulence-associated protein-specific serum immunoglobulin G-isotype expression in young foals protected against Rhodococcus equi pneumonia by oral immunization with virulent R. equi. The purpose of this study was to determine whether foals immunized orally from 2 days of age with virulent Rhodococcus equi developed a protective pulmonary immune response and to characterise the antibody response of the immunized foals to the virulence-associated proteins (Vaps) of the bacterium. Two groups of foals were used. One (n=4) was given live R. equi ATCC 33701 orally at 2, 7, and 14 days of age. The second group comprised three non-immunized foals age-matched to the vaccinates. At 3 weeks of age, 1 week after the final immunization, both groups were challenged intrabronchially with...
Japanese encephalitis in a racing thoroughbred gelding in Hong Kong. A horse in Hong Kong that had been vaccinated against Japanese encephalitis suffered a pyrexic episode that culminated in a hyperexcitable state and self-inflicted trauma. Japanese encephalitis was diagnosed on the basis of clinical, pathological and serological observations, and confirmed by the detection of genomic sequences of the virus in spinal cord tissue. Phylogenetic analyses of E gene and NS5-3'UTR sequences revealed divergent clustering of these segments with previously described genotypes, suggesting the possibility that the horse might have been infected with a recombinant between ...
An epizootic of equine influenza in Upper Egypt in 2000. This study describes an epizootic of respiratory tract disease caused by influenza virus infection in a large population of equines in Luxor and Aswan, Upper Egypt, during the winter of 2000. The epizootic started in January and the infection rate reached its peak in February before gradually decreasing until the end of April, 2000. Horses, donkeys and mules of all ages and both sexes were affected. Free movement of the infected equines and direct contact between the animals at markets facilitated the rapid spread of the disease. The cause of the epizootic was established by use of serological...
Serum antibody responses to equine herpesvirus 1 glycoprotein D in horses, pregnant mares and young foals. The envelope glycoprotein D of equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1 gD) has been shown in laboratory animal models to elicit protective immune responses against EHV-1 challenge, and hence is a potential vaccine antigen. Here we report that intramuscular inoculation of EHV-1 gD produced by a recombinant baculovirus and formulated with the adjuvant Iscomatrix elicited virus-neutralizing antibody and gD-specific ELISA antibody in the serum of over 90% of adult mixed breed horses. The virus-neutralizing antibody responses to EHV-1 gD were similar to those observed after inoculation with a commercially avai...
Assessment in mice of vapA-DNA vaccination against Rhodococcus equi infection. There is a need to produce a vaccine against Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals in which immunity against infection is largely based on a type 1, cell-mediated, immune response. The VapA protein of the virulence plasmid of R. equi is highly immunogenic. To assess the potential of vapA-DNA to produce immunity, C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice were immunized with a DNA vaccine constructed from vapA incorporated into pcDNA3.1. The plasmid construct expressed VapA in a COS-7 cell line. Intramuscular immunization of mice resulted in enhanced clearance of R. equi from the liver of intravenously challenged m...
Immunologic responses to West Nile virus in vaccinated and clinically affected horses. To compare neutralizing antibody response between horses vaccinated against West Nile virus (WNV) and horses that survived naturally occurring infection. Methods: Cross-sectional observational study. Methods: 187 horses vaccinated with a killed WNV vaccine and 37 horses with confirmed clinical WNV infection. Methods: Serum was collected from vaccinated horses prior to and 4 to 6 weeks after completion of an initial vaccination series (2 doses) and 5 to 7 months later. Serum was collected from affected horses 4 to 6 weeks after laboratory diagnosis of infection and 5 to 7 months after the first...
Immune responses and protective efficacy in ponies immunised with an equine influenza ISCOM vaccine containing an ‘American lineage’ H3N8 virus. Protective responses generated by vaccination with an immuno-stimulating complex (ISCOM)-based vaccine for equine influenza (EQUIP F), containing a new 'American lineage' H3N8 virus, were studied. Seven ponies in the vaccine group received two intramuscular injections of EQUIP F given 6 weeks apart. Aerosol challenge with an A/eq/Newmarket/1/93 reference strain 4 weeks after booster vaccination resulted in clinical signs of infection and viral shedding in 7 influenza-naive control animals whereas the vaccinated ponies were significantly protected from both clinical signs and virus excretion. I...
Evolution of equine infection control programs. The science of control of infectious diseases in hospitals was born in 1847 when Semmelweis, a physician, ordered his medical students to scrub their hands in chlorinated lime water between patients and demonstrated that this simple procedure resulted ina dramatic decline in patient morbidity and mortality. In the late nineteenth century came huge breakthroughs in the understanding that microorganisms cause many disorders, and methods to eliminate and control these microorganisms were attempted. By 1910, sterile instruments, gowns, masks, and gloves had become standard for surgical procedures ...
Evaluation of an outbreak of West Nile virus infection in horses: 569 cases (2002). To characterize an outbreak of West Nile virus (WNV) infection in horses in North Dakota in 2002, evaluate vaccine effectiveness, and determine horse characteristics and clinical signs associated with infection. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: 569 horses. Methods: Data were obtained from veterinary laboratory records, and a questionnaire was mailed to veterinarians of affected horses. Results: Affected horses were defined as horses with typical clinical signs and seroconversion or positive results of virus isolation; affected horses were detected in 52 of the 53 counties and concentrate...
Outcome of equids with clinical signs of West Nile virus infection and factors associated with death. To determine outcome of equids in the western United States with clinical signs of West Nile virus (WNV) infection and identify factors associated with risk of death in infected equids. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: 484 equids in Nebraska and Colorado. Methods: Owners of 484 equids with laboratory-confirmed West Nile virus infection in Nebraska and Colorado were contacted by telephone, and a questionnaire was used to obtain information on signalment, management, clinical signs, date of disease onset, duration of disease, WNV vaccination status, and health status at the time of the i...
Equine viral vaccines: the past, present and future. The increasing international movement of horses combined with the relaxation of veterinary regulations has resulted in an increased incidence of equine infectious diseases. Vaccination, along with management measures, has become the primary method for the effective control of these diseases. Traditionally modified live and inactivated vaccines have been used and these vaccines have proven to be very successful in preventing disease. However, there are a number of equine infectious diseases for which conventional technology has shown its limitations. The advent of recombinant technology has sti...
Investigation of an outbreak of encephalomyelitis caused by West Nile virus in 136 horses. To describe an outbreak of encephalomyelitis caused by West Nile virus (WNV) in horses in northern Indiana. Methods: Case series. Methods: 170 horses. Methods: Horses with clinical signs suggestive of encephalomyelitis caused by WNV were examined. Date, age, sex, breed, and survival status were recorded. Serum samples were tested for anti-WNV antibodies, and virus isolation was attempted from samples of brain tissue. Climate data from local weather recording stations were collected. An epidemic curve was constructed, and case fatality rate was calculated. Results: The most common clinical sign...
