The study of viral infections that affect equine species assesses the relationship between viruses and horses. Infections can lead to a range of clinical symptoms and may impact the health and performance of horses. Common equine viruses include Equine Influenza Virus, Equine Herpesvirus, and West Nile Virus, among others. Understanding the mechanisms of viral transmission, pathogenesis, and host immune responses is essential for developing effective prevention and treatment strategies. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the epidemiology, molecular biology, and clinical management of viral infections in horses.
Minato E, Aoshima K, Kobayashi A, Ohnishi N, Sasaki N, Kimura T.Equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) uses equine major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC class I) as an entry receptor. Exogenous expression of equine MHC class I genes in murine cell lines confers susceptibility to EHV-1 infection. To examine the in vivo role of equine MHC class I as an entry receptor for EHV-1, we generated transgenic (Tg) mice expressing equine MHC class I under the control of the CAG promoter. Equine MHC class I protein was expressed in the liver, spleen, lung, and brain of Tg mice, which was confirmed by Western blot. However, equine MHC class I antigen was only detected in...
Racine T, Denizot M, Pannetier D, Nguyen L, Pasquier A, Raoul H, Saluzzo JF, Kobinger G, Veas F, Herbreteau CH.There is no vaccine or approved therapy against lethal Ebola virus (EBOV). We investigated a proven technology platform to produce polyclonal IgG fragments, F(ab')2, against EBOV. Horses immunized with nanoparticles harboring surface glycoprotein trimers of EBOV-Zaire/Makona produced anti-Ebola IgG polyclonal antibodies with high neutralization activity. Highly purified equine anti-Ebola F(ab')2 showed strong cross-neutralization of 2 Zaire EBOV strains (Gabon 2001 and Makona) and in vivo 3 or 5 daily F(ab')2 intraperitoneal injections provided 100% protection to BALB/c mice against lethal EBO...
Makrynitsa GI, Ntonti D, Marousis KD, Birkou M, Matsoukas MT, Asami S, Bentrop D, Papageorgiou N, Canard B, Coutard B, Spyroulias GA.Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a new world alphavirus which can be involved in several central nervous system disorders such as encephalitis and meningitis. The VEEV genome codes for 4 non-structural proteins (nsP), of which nsP3 contains a Macro domain. Macro domains (MD) can be found as stand-alone proteins or embedded within larger proteins in viruses, bacteria and eukaryotes. Their most common feature is the binding of ADP-ribose (ADPr), while several macro domains act as ribosylation writers, erasers or readers. Alphavirus MD erase ribosylation but their precise contributi...
Van Cleemput J, Poelaert KCK, Laval K, Nauwynck HJ.Equine herpesvirus type 5 (EHV5) is a ubiquitous, yet obscure pathogen in the horse population and is commonly associated with fatal equine multinodular pulmonary fibrosis (EMPF). To date, little is known about the precise pathogenesis of EHV5. Here, we evaluated the dynamics of EHV5 infection in representative ex vivo and in vitro equine models, using immunofluorescence staining and virus titration. EHV5 was unable to infect epithelial cells lining the mucosa of nasal and tracheal explants. Similarly, primary equine respiratory epithelial cells (EREC) were not susceptible to EHV5 following in...
Ahmed A, Siman-Tov G, Keck F, Kortchak S, Bakovic A, Risner K, Lu TK, Bhalla N, de la Fuente-Nunez C, Narayanan A.Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), a new world alphavirus belonging to the Togaviridae family, causes periodic disease outbreaks in humans and equines with high associated mortality and morbidity. VEEV is highly infectious via the aerosol route and so has been developed as a biological weapon (Hawley and Eitzen, 2001). Despite its current classification as a category B select agent, there are no FDA approved vaccines or therapeutics to counter VEEV infections. Here we utilize a naturally occurring host defense peptide, LL-37, as a therapeutic strategy to inhibit VEEV multiplication i...
Beck C, Leparc-Goffart I, Desoutter D, Debergé E, Bichet H, Lowenski S, Dumarest M, Gonzalez G, Migné C, Vanhomwegen J, Zientara S, Durand B....New Caledonia and French Polynesia are areas in which arboviruses circulate extensively. A large serological survey among horses from New Caledonia and French Polynesia was carried out to investigate the seroprevalence of flaviviruses in the horse population. Here, 293 equine sera samples were screened for flaviviruses using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). The positive sera were then confirmed using a flavivirus-specific microsphere immunoassay (MIA) and seroneutralization tests. This serosurvey showed that 16.6% (27/163) and 30.8% (40/130) of horses were positive for...
Zhu H, Damdinjav B, Gonzalez G, Patrono LV, Ramirez-Mendoza H, Amat JAR, Crispell J, Parr YA, Hammond TA, Shiilegdamba E, Leung YHC, Peiris M....Virus ecology and evolution play a central role in disease emergence. However, their relative roles will vary depending on the viruses and ecosystems involved. We combined field studies, phylogenetics and experimental infections to document with unprecedented detail the stages that precede initial outbreaks during viral emergence in nature. Using serological surveys we showed that in the absence of large-scale outbreaks, horses in Mongolia are routinely exposed to and infected by avian influenza viruses (AIVs) circulating among wild birds. Some of those AIVs are genetically related to an avian...
Savini F, Gallina L, Mazza F, Mariella J, Castagnetti C, Scagliarini A.Despite the characteristic species specificity of Papillomaviruses (PVs), the bovine papillomavirus (BPV) types 1, 2, and-more rarely-13, can cross-infect equids, where they are involved in the pathogenesis of sarcoid neoplasms. Sarcoids are locally invasive fibroblastic skin tumors that represent the most common skin neoplasms in horses worldwide. The transmission mechanism of BPV is still controversial in horses. Thus far, direct and indirect routes have been implicated, while vertical transmission has been suggested after the detection of viral DNA in the semen of healthy stallions. Testing...
van Schalkwyk A, Ferreira ML, Romito M.The outer capsid viral protein 2 (VP2) of African horse sickness virus, encoded by the most variable genome segment 2 (Seg-2), is the primary target for AHSV-specific neutralising antibodies and thus determines the virus serotype. Full length segment 2 sequences from more than 100 AHSVs isolated over the last 80 years were compared and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) identified between the reference strains and recent field viruses. Regions unique to each individual serotype were identified and primers designed to differentially amplify each of the nine serotypes. The sequences of resul...
Martins LC, Silva EVPD, Casseb LMN, Silva SPD, Cruz ACR, Pantoja JAS, Medeiros DBA, Martins Filho AJ, Cruz EDRMD, Araújo MTF, Cardoso JF....Serological evidence of West Nile virus (WNV) infection has been reported in different regions of Brazil from equine and human hosts but the virus had never been isolated in the country. Objective: We sought to identify the viral etiology of equine encephalitis in Espírito Santo state. Methods: We performed viral culture in C6/36 cells, molecular detection of WNV genome, histopathology and immunohistochemistry from horse cerebral tissue. We also carried out sequencing, phylogenetic analysis and molecular clock. Results: Histopathologic analysis from horse cerebral tissue showed injury related...
Bannai H, Nemoto M, Tsujimura K, Yamanaka T, Kokado H, Kondo T.In order to establish an efficient system for serological diagnosis of equine viral arteritis in Japan, we compared enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) provided by two manufacturers (Nisseiken Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan, and VMRD Inc., Pullman, WA, U.S.A.) by testing a series of horse sera. The results revealed that 159 of 160 virus-neutralizing (VN) antibody-positive serum samples were positive in both the Nisseiken-ELISA and VMRD-ELISA. Of the VN-negative sera (n=157), 134 and 154 samples were negative in the Nisseiken-ELISA and VMRD-ELISA, respectively. Sensitivity was 99.4% for both t...
Prakoso D, Dark MJ, Barbet AF, Salemi M, Barr KL, Liu JJ, Wenzlow N, Waltzek TB, Long MT.West Nile virus (WNV), a small, positive sense, single stranded RNA virus continues to encroach into new locales with emergence of new viral variants. Neurological disease in the equine can be moderate to severe in the face of low to undetectable virus loads. Physical methods of virus enrichment may increase sensitivity of virus detection and enhance analysis of viral diversity, especially for deep sequencing studies. However, the use of these techniques is limited mainly to non-neural tissues. We investigated the hypothesis that elimination of equine brain RNA enhances viral detection without...
Lundberg L, Fontenot J, Lin SC, Pinkham C, Carey BD, Campbell CE, Kehn-Hall K.Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a positive sense, single-stranded RNA virus and member of the New World alphaviruses. It causes a biphasic febrile illness that can be accompanied by central nervous system involvement and moderate morbidity in humans and severe mortality in equines. The virus has a history of weaponization, lacks FDA-approved therapeutics and vaccines in humans, and is considered a select agent. Like other RNA viruses, VEEV replicates in the cytoplasm of infected cells and eventually induces apoptosis. The capsid protein, which contains a nuclear localization and...
Peters-Kennedy J, Lange CE, Rine SL, Hackett RP.Equus caballus papillomavirus 8, a recently discovered virus, has been reported to cause generalised papillomavirus in horses. Objective: To describe a case in which multiple viral plaques, viral papillomas, squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) in situ and invasive squamous cell carcinoma (ISCC) were associated with EcPV8 in a horse. Methods: Case report. Methods: A 16-year-old mixed breed horse presented with dozens of raised crusted papular to nodular lesions over a course of 4 years. Masses had been surgically excised four times and cisplatin beads and emulsion were implanted on three different ...
Tomlinson JE, Tennant BC, Struzyna A, Mrad D, Browne N, Whelchel D, Johnson PJ, Jamieson C, Löhr CV, Bildfell R, McKenzie EC, Laverack M, Renshaw RW....A novel equine parvovirus (EqPV-H) was recently discovered in the equine liver with Theiler's disease. Objective: To determine the prevalence of EqPV-H infection in naturally occurring Theiler's disease cases and in-contact horses in the absence of historical equine biologic product administration. Methods: Ten cases of Theiler's disease from 6 separate properties were included in the study, based on the criteria of acute onset of clinical signs of liver failure with laboratory or histopathologic findings characteristic of Theiler's disease and no history of receiving an equine biologic produc...
Tomlinson JE, Kapoor A, Kumar A, Tennant BC, Laverack MA, Beard L, Delph K, Davis E, Schott Ii H, Lascola K, Holbrook TC, Johnson P, Taylor SD....Three flaviviruses (equine pegivirus [EPgV]; Theiler's disease-associated virus [TDAV]; non-primate hepacivirus [NPHV]) and equine parvovirus (EqPV-H) are present in equine blood products; the TDAV, NPHV, and EqPV-H have been suggested as potential causes of serum hepatitis. Objective: To determine the prevalence of these viruses in horses with equine serum hepatitis. Methods: Eighteen horses diagnosed with serum hepatitis, enrolled from US referral hospitals. Methods: In the prospective case study, liver, serum, or both samples were tested for EPgV, TDAV, NPHV, and EqPV-H by PCR. Results: Bot...
Matczuk AK, Skarbek M, Jackulak NA, Bażanów BA.Equid alphaherpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) is one of the main infectious causative agents of abortion in mares and can also be associated with stillbirth, neonatal foal death, rhinopneumonitis in young horses and a neurological disorder called equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM). The neuropathogenicity of the virus was shown to be significantly higher in EHV-1 strains that carry a single nucleotide point (SNP) mutation in the ORF30, which encodes a catalytic subunit of viral DNA polymerase (ORF30 D). Another gene, ORF68 is frequently used for phylogenetic analysis of EHV-1. 27 EHV-1 strains iso...
Wimer CL, Schnabel CL, Perkins G, Babasyan S, Freer H, Stout AE, Rollins A, Osterrieder N, Goodman LB, Glaser A, Wagner B.The equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) ORF1 and ORF71 genes have immune modulatory effects in vitro. Experimental infection of horses using virus mutants with multiple deletions including ORF1 and ORF71 showed promise as vaccine candidates against EHV-1. Here, the combined effects of ORF1 and ORF71 deletions from the neuropathogenic EHV-1 strain Ab4 on clinical disease and host immune response were further explored. Three groups of EHV-1 naïve horses were experimentally infected with the ORF1/71 gene deletion mutant (Ab4ΔORF1/71), the parent Ab4 strain, or remained uninfected. In comparison t...
Cook RF, Barrandeguy M, Lee PA, Tsai CF, Shen YH, Tsai YL, Chang HG, Wang HT, Balasuriya UBR.Control of equine infectious anaemia (EIA) currently depends on serological diagnosis of infected equids. However, recently infected equids may not produce detectable anti-EIAV antibodies up to 157 days post infection and so present a high transmission risk. Therefore, direct nucleic acid detection methods are urgently needed to improve EIAV surveillance and management programs in counties where the disease is endemic. Objective: To evaluate a field-deployable, reverse transcription-insulated isothermal PCR (RT-iiPCR) assay targeting the conserved 5' untranslated region (5' UTR)/exon 1 of the ...
Parashar R, Singla LD, Gupta M, Sharma SK.The haemato-biochemical indices and oxidative stress markers in horses naturally infected with Trypanosoma evansi were evaluated by analyzing the level of these parameters between T. evansi infected (microscopically positive patent group and PCR positive latent group) and infection free horses. To compare the hemato-biochemical indices and oxidative stress indicators, horses were divided into three categories based on diagnostic test employed and positive results obtained. These included Romanowsky stained slide positive group (Group I; n = 6), PCR positive group (group II; n = 28) and negativ...
Schlottau K, Fereidouni S, Beer M, Hoffmann B.Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a positive-sense RNA virus belonging to the genus Hepacivirus, family Flaviviridae. Its genome has a length of 9.6 kb and encodes a single polyprotein flanked by two untranslated regions. HCV can cause liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, and approximately 2% of the world's population is chronically infected. The investigation of pathogenesis is complicated due to the lack of an animal model. The origin of this virus remains unclear, but in the last few years, relatives of HCV were initially identified in dogs and later in horses, rodents, bats and Old World...
Metz GE, Abeyá MM, Serena MS, Panei CJ, Echeverría MG.Equine arteritis virus (EAV) induces apoptosis in infected cells. Cell death caused by EAV has been studied mainly using three cell lines, BHK-21, RK-13 and Vero cells. The mechanism of apoptosis varies among cell lines and results cannot be correlated owing to differences in EAV strains used. We evaluated different markers for apoptosis in BHK-21, RK-13 and Vero cell lines using the Bucyrus EAV reference strain. Acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining revealed morphological changes in infected cells, while flow cytometry indicated the extent of apoptosis. We also observed DNA fragmentation,...
Lu G, Sun L, Ou J, Xu H, Wu L, Li S.A novel equine parvovirus, equine parvovirus-hepatitis (EqPV-H), was first discovered in a horse that died of equine serum hepatitis in the USA in 2018. EqPV-H was shown to be a novel etiological agent associated with equine serum hepatitis. Following this initial report, no additional studies on EqPV-H have been published. In this study, a total of 143 serum samples were collected from racehorses at 5 separate farms in China and were analyzed to detect EqPV-H DNA via nested PCR. The results indicated a high prevalence of EqPV-H (11.9%, 17/143) in the studied animals. In addition, a remarkably...
Lee SK, Lee JK, Lee I.Equus caballus papillomavirus type 2 (EcPV-2) is implicated in genital neoplasms in horses, including equine penile papillomas, penile intraepithelial neoplasia, and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). This virus seldom regresses spontaneously and can result in the development of SCC, which may result in significant clinical damage and economic cost. However, the prevalence of this virus is unknown in clinically unaffected horses. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of EcPV-2 DNA in genital swabs from healthy horses in the Republic of Korea and to investigate genetic variability w...
Kaname Y, Celma CCP, Kanai Y, Roy P.African horse sickness virus (AHSV) is an insect-vectored emerging pathogen of equine species. AHSV (nine serotypes) is a member of the genus Orbivirus, with a morphology and coding strategy similar to that of the type member, bluetongue virus. However, these viruses are distinct at the genetic level, in the proteins they encode and in their pathobiology. AHSV infection of horses is highly virulent with a mortality rate of up to 90 %. AHSV is transmitted by Culicoides, a common European insect, and has the potential to emerge in Europe from endemic countries of Africa. As a result, a safe an...
Dynon K, Black WD, Ficorilli N, Hartley CA, Studdert MJ.To examine the association of viruses with acute febrile respiratory disease in horses. Design Nasal swab and serum samples were collected from 20 horses with acute febrile upper respiratory disease that was clinically assessed to have a viral origin. Methods: Each of the samples was inoculated onto equine fetal kidney, RK13 and Vero cell cultures, and viral nucleic acid was extracted for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or reverse transcription PCR. PCR primers were designed to amplify nucleic acid from viruses known to cause or be associated with acute febrile respiratory disease in horses in...
Vandekerckhove AP, Glorieux S, Gryspeerdt AC, Steukers L, Van Doorsselaere J, Osterrieder N, Van de Walle GR, Nauwynck HJ.Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) replicates extensively in the epithelium of the upper respiratory tract, after which it can spread throughout the body via a cell-associated viremia in mononuclear leukocytes reaching the pregnant uterus and central nervous system. In a previous study, we were able to mimic the in vivo situation in an in vitro respiratory mucosal explant system. A plaquewise spread of EHV-1 was observed in the epithelial cells, whereas in the connective tissue below the basement membrane (BM), EHV-1-infected mononuclear leukocytes were noticed. Equine herpesvirus type 4 (EHV-4...
Azab W, Lehmann MJ, Osterrieder N.Herpesviruses enter cells either by direct fusion at the plasma membrane or from within endosomes, depending on the cell type and receptor(s). We investigated two closely related herpesviruses of horses, equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) and EHV-4, for which the cellular and viral determinants routing virus entry are unknown. We show that EHV-1 enters equine epithelial cells via direct fusion at the plasma membrane, while EHV-4 does so via an endocytic pathway, which is dependent on dynamin II, cholesterol, caveolin 1, and tyrosine kinase activity. Exchange of glycoprotein H (gH) between EHV-1...
Blitvich BJ, Saiyasombat R, Travassos da Rosa A, Tesh RB, Calisher CH, Garcia-Rejon JE, Farfán-Ale JA, Loroño RE, Bates A, Loroño-Pino MA.To determine the seroprevalence of selected orthobunyaviruses in livestock in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, a serologic investigation was performed using serum samples from 256 domestic animals (182 horses, 31 sheep, 1 dog, 37 chickens, and 5 turkeys). All serum samples were examined by plaque reduction neutralization test using Cache Valley virus (CVV), Cholul virus (CHLV), South River virus (SOURV), Kairi virus, Maguari virus, and Wyeomyia virus. Of the 182 horses, 60 (33.0%) were seropositive for CHLV, 48 (26.4%) were seropositive for CVV, 1 (0.5%) was seropositive for SOURV, 60 (33.0%) ...
McGuire TC, Leib SR, Mealey RH, Fraser DG, Prieur DJ.Control of a naturally occurring lentivirus, equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), occurs in most infected horses and involves MHC class I-restricted, virus-specific CTL. Two minimal 12-aa epitopes, Env-RW12 and Gag-GW12, were evaluated for presentation by target cells from horses with an equine lymphocyte Ag-A1 (ELA-A1) haplotype. Fifteen of 15 presented Env-RW12 to CTL, whereas 11 of 15 presented Gag-GW12. To determine whether these epitopes were presented by different molecules, MHC class I genes were identified in cDNA clones from Arabian horse A2152, which presented both epitopes. This h...
Browning GF, Chalmers RM, Fitzgerald TA, Snodgrass DR.Ten cultivable equine rotavirus isolates, two of North American, six of British, and two of Irish origin, were compared with standard rotavirus strains and with each other by cross neutralization, neutralization with a panel of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), hybridization to a simian rotavirus (SA-11) VP7 gene probe, and reaction with rotavirus subgrouping and serotyping MAbs in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Six isolates, two of which had previously been serotyped as G3 by other workers, were found to be serotype G3; one was confirmed to be G5, and three were not related to serotypes G1 t...
Browning GF, Studdert MJ.The genomes of 51 isolates of slowly cytopathic equine herpesviruses were examined by digestion with restriction endonucleases. Forty-seven of the isolates showed considerable fragment pattern heterogeneity although common fragments were evident, especially when any two isolates were compared or when they were digested with SalI. Fifteen of the 47 viruses, selected for their diverse fragment patterns, showed a high degree of homology in Southern blot hybridization. In contrast, four viruses, representing three epidemiologically distinct isolations, shared few, if any, comigrating fragments wit...
Lu Z, Chambers TM, Boliar S, Branscum AJ, Sturgill TL, Timoney PJ, Reedy SE, Tudor LR, Dubovi EJ, Vickers ML, Sells S, Balasuriya UB.The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate new TaqMan real-time reverse transcription-PCR (rRT-PCR) assays by the use of the minor groove binding probe to detect a wide range of equine influenza virus (EIV) strains comprising both subtypes of the virus (H3N8 and H7N7). A total of eight rRT-PCR assays were developed, targeting the nucleoprotein (NP), matrix (M), and hemagglutinin (HA) genes of the two EIV subtypes. None of the eight assays cross-reacted with any of the other known equine respiratory viruses. Three rRT-PCR assays (EqFlu NP, M, and HA3) which can detect strains of th...
Toth AM, Geisler C, Aumiller JJ, Jarvis DL.In an effort to produce processed, soluble Western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV) glycoproteins for subunit therapeutic vaccine studies, we isolated twelve recombinant baculoviruses designed to express four different WEEV glycoprotein constructs under the transcriptional control of three temporally distinct baculovirus promoters. The WEEV glycoprotein constructs encoded full-length E1, the E1 ectodomain, an E26KE1 polyprotein precursor, and an artificial, secretable E2E1 chimera. The three different promoters induced gene expression during the immediate early (ie1), late (p6.9), and very lat...
Rash A, Woodward A, Bryant N, McCauley J, Elton D.H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV) has caused disease outbreaks in horses across the world since its first isolation in 1963. However, unlike human, swine and avian influenza, there is relatively little sequence data available for this virus. The majority of published sequences are for the segment encoding haemagglutinin (HA), one of the two surface glycoproteins, making it difficult to study the evolution of the other gene segments and determine the level of reassortment occurring between sub-lineages. Methods: To facilitate the generation of full genome sequences for EIV, we developed a simpl...
Archer BG, Crawford TB, McGuire TC, Frazier ME.Equine infectious anemia (EIAV) is shown to have an associated RNA-instructed DNA polymerase similar in its cofactor requirements and reaction conditions to the RNA tumor virus DNA polymerases. Demonstrating this DNA polymerase activity requires a critical concentration of a nonionic detergent, all four deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates, and a divalent metal ion. The reaction is sensitive to RNase, and a substantial fraction of the FNA synthesized is complementary to viral RNA. The detection of a complex of tritium-labeled polymerase product DNA-template RNA, which sedimented at 60S to 70S, pr...
Pautienius A, Armonaite A, Simkute E, Zagrabskaite R, Buitkuviene J, Alpizar-Jara R, Grigas J, Zakiene I, Zienius D, Salomskas A, Stankevicius A.Various animal species have been evaluated in depth for their potential as Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) sentinel species, although evidence for equine capacity is incomplete. Therefore, a comprehensive cross-sectional stratified serosurvey and PCR analysis of selected horses ( = 301) were performed in TBEV endemic localities in Lithuania. Attached and moving ticks ( = 241) have been collected from aforementioned hosts to evaluate natural infectivity of TBEV vectors () in the recreational environments surrounding equestrian centers. All samples were screened for TBEV IgG and positive sa...
Madani H, Casal J, Alba A, Allepuz A, Cêtre-Sossah C, Hafsi L, Kount-Chareb H, Bouayed-Chaouach N, Saadaoui H, Napp S.Antibodies against bluetongue virus were detected in cattle, sheep, goats, and camels in Algeria in 2008. Antibodies against epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus were detected in cattle, but antibodies against African horse sickness virus were not detected in horses and mules. Epizootic hemorrhagic disease in northern Africa poses a major risk for the European Union.
Yates P, Mumford JA.To investigate the level of cross-protection induced by equine influenza H3N8 vaccines derived from different lineages, two studies have been carried out with ponies vaccinated with 'American-like' and 'European-like' vaccines and experimentally challenged with a European-like strain. The results demonstrated that equine influenza vaccines clearly protect against challenge with homologous virus if serum antibody titres are sufficiently high. On the other hand, protection is incomplete even when animals vaccinated with heterologous strains have comparative antibody levels. Nevertheless, the pro...
Whetter L, Archambault D, Perry S, Gazit A, Coggins L, Yaniv A, Clabough D, Dahlberg J, Fuller F, Tronick S.A full-length molecular clone of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) was isolated from a persistently infected canine fetal thymus cell line (Cf2Th). Upon transfection of equine dermis cells, the clone, designated CL22, yielded infectious EIAV particles (CL22-V) that replicated in vitro in both Cf2Th cells and an equine dermis cell strain. Horses infected with CL22-V developed an antibody response to viral proteins and possessed viral DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, as determined by polymerase chain reaction assays. In addition, horses infected with CL22-V became persistently infe...
Pedersen NC.Lentiviruses are associated with persistent infection and chronic
disease in three major species of livestock—horses, sheep, and goats.
Another lentivirus named bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV) recently has been described (Gonda et al., 1987). It is a Visna-like virus that was originally isolated over a decade ago from cattle with
persistent lymphocytosis, lymphadenopathy, weakness, emaciation,
and central nervous system (CNS) lesions (Van der Maaten et al,
1972). There is very little information on the epidemiology, clinical
manifestations, or importance of bovine lentivirus infect...
Friday PA, Scarratt WK, Elvinger F, Timoney PJ, Bonda A.An outbreak of neurologic disease associated with serologic evidence of equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) infection occurred in a herd of 46 riding school horses. Ataxia and paresis were observed in 14 geldings and 5 barren mares. Eight affected horses had distal limb edema, 1 horse had a head tilt, and 3 others had urinary incontinence. Other clinical signs included fever, depression, and inappetance in 30 horses. Seven horses with neurologic signs were treated with acyclovir. Serum neutralizing antibody titers against EHV-1 increased 4-fold between acute and convalescent samples or exceeded ...
Sarkar S, Chelvarajan L, Go YY, Cook F, Artiushin S, Mondal S, Anderson K, Eberth J, Timoney PJ, Kalbfleisch TS, Bailey E, Balasuriya UB.Previous studies in our laboratory have identified equine CXCL16 (EqCXCL16) to be a candidate molecule and possible cell entry receptor for equine arteritis virus (EAV). In horses, the CXCL16 gene is located on equine chromosome 11 (ECA11) and encodes a glycosylated, type I transmembrane protein with 247 amino acids. Stable transfection of HEK-293T cells with plasmid DNA carrying EqCXCL16 (HEK-EqCXCL16 cells) increased the proportion of the cell population permissive to EAV infection from <3% to almost 100%. The increase in permissiveness was blocked either by transfection of HEK-EqCXCL16 cell...
Hardy ME, Woode GN, Xu ZC, Williams JD, Conner ME, Dwyer RM, Powell DG.Equine group A rotaviruses isolated over a 10-year period in New York State, New Jersey, Kentucky, and Texas were compared serotypically and electropherotypically. All isolates were determined to be serotype 3 by reaction with hyperimmune antiserum to the serotype 3 H-2 strain of equine rotavirus. All displayed RNA electrophoretic migration patterns related to that of the H-2 strain but distinct from that of serotype 5 strain H-1. A serologic survey of 184 mares in Kentucky, which was done to determine the incidence of H-1 and H-2 infections, showed geometric mean serum neutralizing titers to ...
Shi N, Qiu X, Cao X, Mai Z, Zhu X, Li N, Zhang H, Zhang J, Li Z, Shaya N, Lu H, Jin N.The Getah virus (GETV), a mosquito-borne RNA virus, is widely distributed in Oceania and Asia. GETV is not the only pathogenic to horses, pigs, cattle, foxes and boars, but it can also cause fever in humans. Since its first reported case in Chinese mainland in 2017, the number of GETV-affected provinces has increased to seventeen till now. Therefore, we performed an epidemiologic investigation of GETV in the Xinjiang region, located in northwestern China, during the period of 2017-2020. ELISA was used to analyze 3299 serum samples collected from thoroughbred horse, local horse, sheep, goat, ca...
Sciorsci RL, Lillo E, Occhiogrosso L, Rizzo A.Ozone (O) is a triatomic form of oxygen. As O rapidly dissociates into water and releases a reactive form of oxygen that may oxidize cells, the gas mixture of O/O is used in medicine. ATP is widely available for cellular activity. O can be administered via the systemic and local routes. Although O is known as one of the most powerful oxidants, it also promotes antioxidant enzymes. Additionally, it stimulates some of the cells of the immune system and inactivates pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, yeasts, protozoa, and viruses. Owing to these activities, O is used to improve several diseases...
Dietz WH, Galindo P, Johnson KM.In late June 1973, a small outbreak of equine encephalitis caused by eastern equine encephalomyelitis (EEE) virus occurred in the Republic of Panama. At least 100 horses were affected by the disease and 40 died. More than 1,700 human sera were obtained from areas of virus activity but no serological evidence for infection was found. Four isolates of EEE virus were recovered, one of which was from a small pool of Culex taeniopus mosquitoes. Serologic studies of infected horses and classification by the short incubation hemagglutination-inhibition tests revealed that these isolates were South Am...
Bunpapong N, Charoenkul K, Nasamran C, Chamsai E, Udom K, Boonyapisitsopa S, Tantilertcharoen R, Kesdangsakonwut S, Techakriengkrai N, Suradhat S....To investigate an outbreak of African horse sickness (AHS) on a horse farm in northeastern Thailand, we used whole-genome sequencing to detect and characterize the virus. The viruses belonged to serotype 1 and contained unique amino acids (95V,166S, 660I in virus capsid protein 2), suggesting a single virus introduction to Thailand.
Quinlivan M, Nelly M, Prendergast M, Breathnach C, Horohov D, Arkins S, Chiang YW, Chu HJ, Ng T, Cullinane A.Most studies of the cytokine response to influenza virus infection have been carried out in human, porcine and murine models, however the data available on equine cytokines is limited. An experimental challenge study was undertaken in unvaccinated naïve horses and horses vaccinated with a commercial inactivated influenza vaccine. The humoral antibody response to vaccination and virus challenge was measured by single radial haemolysis (SRH) assay and clinical signs of influenza and viral shedding were monitored post-challenge. Levels of three equine pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-...
Schwarz ER, Long MT.West Nile virus (WNV) neuroinvasive disease threatens the health and well-being of horses and humans worldwide. Disease in horses and humans is remarkably similar. The occurrence of WNV disease in these mammalian hosts has geographic overlap with shared macroscale and microscale drivers of risk. Importantly, intrahost virus dynamics, the evolution of the antibody response, and clinicopathology are similar. The goal of this review is to provide a comparison of WNV infection in humans and horses and to identify similarities that can be exploited to enhance surveillance methods for the early dete...
Plummer G, Goodheart CR, Studdert MJ.Equine herpesviruses with a deoxyribonucleic acid density of 1.716 to 1.717 g/cm(3) were compared with one another by the plaque-reduction test and by the rate of development of cytopathic effect as indicated by plaque size in rabbit kidney cultures. Of the 19 isolates studied, the 9 which had already been tentatively labeled equine abortion viruses were serologically similar to one another; each of them grew more quickly than did any of the other 10 isolates although the mean plaque sizes formed a series of gradations with no clear hiatus which would permit the unequivocal delineation of the ...
