Topic:Behavior
Equine behavior encompasses the study of horses' actions, reactions, and interactions within their environment and with other living beings. It includes the examination of innate behaviors, such as grazing and herd dynamics, as well as learned behaviors influenced by training and human interaction. Understanding equine behavior is essential for improving horse welfare, training methods, and management practices. This topic covers a range of behaviors, from social structures and communication to stress responses and problem behaviors. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the various aspects of equine behavior, including factors that influence it and its implications for horse management and welfare.
Do horses with poor welfare show ‘pessimistic’ cognitive biases? This field study tested the hypothesis that domestic horses living under putatively challenging-to-welfare conditions (for example involving social, spatial, feeding constraints) would present signs of poor welfare and co-occurring pessimistic judgement biases. Our subjects were 34 horses who had been housed for over 3 years in either restricted riding school situations (e.g. kept in single boxes, with limited roughage, ridden by inexperienced riders; N = 25) or under more naturalistic conditions (e.g. access to free-range, kept in stable social groups, leisure riding; N = 9). The horses'...
Risk Mitigation of Emerging Zoonoses: Hendra Virus and Non-Vaccinating Horse Owners. Hendra virus was identified in horses and humans in 1994, in Queensland, Australia. Flying foxes are the natural host. Horses are thought to acquire infection by direct or indirect contact with infected flying fox urine. Humans are infected from close contact with infected horses. To reduce risk of infection in horses and humans, Australian horse owners are encouraged to vaccinate horses against the virus and adopt property risk mitigation practices that focus on reducing flying fox horse contact and contamination of horses' environment with flying fox bodily fluids. This study investigates up...
Noseband Use in Equestrian Sports – An International Study. Nosebands are used by riders to prevent the horse from opening its mouth, to increase control and, in some cases, to comply with the competition rules. While equestrian texts traditionally recommend that two adult human fingers should be able to fit under a fastened noseband, noseband tightness levels are not, in general, regulated in competition. Possible detrimental consequences for the horse, of excessively tight nosebands, include discomfort, pain or tissue damage. The current study investigated noseband usage in equestrian competition. Data regarding noseband type, position, width and tig...
Horses discriminate between facial expressions of conspecifics. In humans, facial expressions are rich sources of social information and have an important role in regulating social interactions. However, the extent to which this is true in non-human animals, and particularly in non-primates, remains largely unknown. Therefore we tested whether domestic horses (Equus caballus) could discriminate between facial expressions of their conspecifics captured in different contexts, and whether viewing these expressions elicited functionally relevant reactions. Horses were more likely to approach photographic stimuli displaying facial expressions associated with po...
Domestic horses send signals to humans when they face with an unsolvable task. Some domestic animals are thought to be skilled at social communication with humans due to the process of domestication. Horses, being in close relationship with humans, similar to dogs, might be skilled at communication with humans. Previous studies have indicated that they are sensitive to bodily signals and the attentional state of humans; however, there are few studies that investigate communication with humans and responses to the knowledge state of humans. Our first question was whether and how horses send signals to their potentially helpful but ignorant caretakers in a problem-solving ...
Density-dependent resource selection by a terrestrial herbivore in response to sea-to-land nutrient transfer by seals. Sea-to-land nutrient transfers can connect marine food webs to those on land, creating a dependence on marine webs by opportunistic species. We show how nitrogen, imported by gray seals, Halichoerus grypus, and traced through stable isotope (δ N) measurements in marram grass, Ammophila breviligulata, significantly alters foraging behavior of a free-roaming megaherbivore (feral horses, Equus ferus caballus) on Sable Island, Canada. Values of δ N correlated with protein content of marram and strongly related to pupping-seal densities, and positively influenced selective foraging by horses. The...
Social learning across species: horses (Equus caballus) learn from humans by observation. This study examines whether horses can learn by observing humans, given that they identify individual humans and orientate on the focus of human attention. We tested 24 horses aged between 3 and 12. Twelve horses were tested on whether they would learn to open a feeding apparatus by observing a familiar person. The other 12 were controls and received exactly the same experimental procedure, but without a demonstration of how to operate the apparatus. More horses from the group with demonstration (8/12) reached the learning criterion of opening the feeder twenty times consecutively than horses ...
Triads in Equine-Assisted Social Work Enhance Therapeutic Relationships with Self-Harming Adolescents. Despite an increasing number of studies, there is still a lack of knowledge about the unique features that underlie the process in equine assisted social work (EASW). This study aimed to reveal, through qualitative methods, the dyads within the triad that become stronger during the process of EASW, as well as the effect of the participation of the horse on the relationship between the counselor and client. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with nine female self-harming clients aged 15-21 years and eight staff members. The interviews, together with video-recorded human-horse inte...
Behavioral responses following eight anesthetic induction protocols in horses. To compare behavioral characteristics of induction and recovery in horses anesthetized with eight anesthetic drug protocols. Methods: Randomized prospective experimental study. Methods: Eight horses, 5.5 ± 2.4 years (mean ± SD) of age, and weighing 505 ± 31 kg. Methods: After xylazine pre-medication, each of eight horses was anesthetized on four occasions using one of eight different anesthetic induction protocols which incorporated various combinations of ketamine (KET), propofol (PRO), and thiopental (THIO): THIO 8 mg kg; THIO 6 mg kg + PRO 0.5 mg kg; THIO 4 mg kg + PRO 1 mg kg; THIO 2 mg...
The Challenges of Using Horses for Practical Teaching Purposes in Veterinary Programmes. Students enrolled in veterinary degrees often come from an urban background with little previous experience in handling horses and other large animals. Many veterinary degree programmes place importance on the teaching of appropriate equine handling skills, yet within the literature it is commonly reported that time allocated for practical classes often suffers due to time constraint pressure from other elements of the curriculum. The effect of this pressure on animal handling teaching time is reflected in the self-reported low level of animal handling competency, particularly equine, in stude...
Horse Injury during Non-Commercial Transport: Findings from Researcher-Assisted Intercept Surveys at Southeastern Australian Equestrian Events. Equine transportation research has largely focused on the commercial land movement of horses. Data on the incidence and factors associated with horse injuries during non-commercial transportation (privately owned horse trucks and trailers) is scant. This study surveyed 223 drivers transporting horses to 12 equestrian events in southeastern Australia. Data collected encompassed driver demographics, travel practice, vehicle characteristics, and incidents involving horse injury. Approximately 25% (55/223) of participants reported that their horses were injured during transportation. Of these 72% ...
Efficacy of a Feed Dispenser for Horses in Decreasing Cribbing Behaviour. Cribbing is an oral stereotypy, tends to develop in captive animals as a means to cope with stress, and may be indicative of reduced welfare. Highly energetic diets ingested in a short time are one of the most relevant risk factors for the development of cribbing. The aim of this study was to verify whether feeding cribbing horses through a dispenser that delivers small quantities of concentrate when activated by the animal decreases cribbing behaviour, modifies feeding behaviour, or induces frustration. Ten horses (mean age 14 y), balanced for sex, breed, and size (mean height 162 cm), we...
Are Eyes a Mirror of the Soul? What Eye Wrinkles Reveal about a Horse’s Emotional State. Finding valid indicators of emotional states is one of the biggest challenges in animal welfare science. Here, we investigated in horses whether variation in the expression of eye wrinkles caused by contraction of the inner eyebrow raiser reflects emotional valence. By confronting horses with positive and negative conditions, we aimed to induce positive and negative emotional states, hypothesising that positive emotions would reduce whereas negative emotions would increase eye wrinkle expression. Sixteen horses were individually exposed in a balanced order to two positive (grooming, food antic...
Advances in Diagnostics and Therapeutic Techniques in Breeding Behavior Disorders in Stallions. Despite the suboptimal aspects of domestic breeding conditions compared with the natural conditions under which their reproductive behavior evolved, most domestic stallions can adapt to management and breeding programs. Most respond adequately or quickly learn to safely abide the restraint and direction of a human handler, and can adapt to changes in methods of breeding for semen collection. If not, the problems can range from inadequate or variable sexual interest and response to overenthusiastic or aggressive response beyond the ability of the handlers to safely direct and control. This arti...
Survey of horse transportation in Australia: issues and practices. To survey amateur and professional participants on equine transportation management, practices and outcomes in Australia. Methods: An online survey targeting people who organised horse movements at least monthly was made available to a broad cross-section of amateur and professional equine associations. Respondents were invited to provide demographic details and information relating to their routine transportation management practices and their experiences of issues relating to the transportation of horses. Results: Of 797 usable responses involving approximately 17,000 horses and 313,000 indi...
MHC-correlated preferences in diestrous female horses (Equus caballus). Genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) have been shown to influence communication in many vertebrates, possibly with context-specific MHC-correlated reactions. Here we test for MHC-linked female preferences in the polygynous horse (Equus caballus) by repeatedly exposing 19 mares to a group of seven sexually experienced stallions. Each mare was tested four times during two consecutive reproductive cycles, twice during estrus and twice during diestrus. Male plasma testosterone concentrations were determined from weekly blood samples, and equine leukocyte antigen (ELA) class I and II...
Monty Roberts’ Public Demonstrations: Preliminary Report on the Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability of Horses Undergoing Training during Live Audience Events. Effective training of horses relies on the trainer's awareness of learning theory and equine ethology, and should be undertaken with skill and time. Some trainers, such as Monty Roberts, share their methods through the medium of public demonstrations. This paper describes the opportunistic analysis of beat-to-beat (RR) intervals and heart rate variability (HRV) of ten horses being used in Monty Roberts' public demonstrations within the United Kingdom. RR and HRV was measured in the stable before training and during training. The HRV variables standard deviation of the RR interval (SDRR), root ...
The effect of relaxing massage on heart rate and heart rate variability in purebred Arabian racehorses. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of relaxing massage on the heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) in young racehorses during their first racing season. In the study, 72 Purebred Arabian racehorses were included. The study was implemented during the full race season. The horses from control and experimental groups were included in regular race training 6 days a week. The horses from the experimental group were additionally subject to the relaxing massage 3 days a week during the whole study. HR and HRV were assumed as indicators of the emotional state of the horse...
Neural modulators of temperament: A multivariate approach to personality trait identification in the horse. A relationship between dopamine and temperament has previously been described in human cases of dopaminergic dysfunction. Adjustment in temperament prior to disease manifestation can enable the early identification of individuals at risk of such conditions, and scope exists to extend this application of temperament alterations to cases of dopaminergic dysfunction in horses. A multivariate and mixed-methods approach utilising a questionnaire along with two inferred measurements of dopamine activity (Spontaneous Blink Rate [SBR] and behavioral initiation rate [BIR]) were recorded from direct obs...
Investigating determinants of yawning in the domestic (Equus caballus) and Przewalski (Equus ferus przewalskii) horses. Yawning is rare in herbivores which therefore may be an interesting group to disentangle the potential function(s) of yawning behaviour. Horses provide the opportunity to compare not only animals living in different conditions but also wild versus domestic species. Here, we tested three hypotheses by observing both domestic and Przewalski horses living in semi-natural conditions: (i) that domestic horses may show an elevated rate of yawning as a result of the domestication process (or as a result of life conditions), (ii) that individuals experiencing a higher level of social stress would yawn...
The mane effect in the horse (Equus ferus caballus): Right mane dominance enhanced in mares but not associated with left and right manoeuvres in a reining competition. A human physical asymmetry is the near 90% clockwise occipitoparietal scalp hair-whorl direction in Europeans, an incidence that approximates the left lateralization of speech and right-handedness. Hair-whorl direction is also asymmetric in horses, Equus ferus caballus and placement is proposed to be related to temperament and lateralized skill in equitation manoeuvres. We describe a hair-whorl asymmetry in the horse, mane direction. Of 526, 3-year-old American Quarter horses, 69% of horses had mane directed to the right and 31% had mane directed to the left. The bias was larger in females, wi...
Current Welfare Problems Facing Horses in Great Britain as Identified by Equine Stakeholders. Despite growing concerns about the welfare of horses in Great Britain (GB) there has been little surveillance of the welfare status of the horse population. Consequently we have limited knowledge of the range of welfare problems experienced by horses in GB and the situations in which poor welfare occurs. Thirty-one in-depth interviews were conducted with a cross -section of equine stakeholders, in order to explore their perceptions of the welfare problems faced by horses in GB. Welfare problems relating to health, management and riding and training were identified, including horses being under...
Pharmacokinetic profiles of the active metamizole metabolites in healthy horses. Metamizole (MT) is an analgesic and antipyretic drug labelled for use in humans, horses, cattle, swine and dogs. MT is rapidly hydrolysed to the active primary metabolite 4-methylaminoantipyrine (MAA). MAA is formed in much larger amounts compared with other minor metabolites. Among the other secondary metabolites, 4-aminoantipyrine (AA) is also relatively active. The aim of this research was to evaluate the pharmacokinetic profiles of MAA and AA after dose of 25 mg/kg MT by intravenous (i.v.) and intramuscular (i.m.) routes in healthy horses. Six horses were randomly allocated to two equally...
Brief Report: The Effects of Equine-Assisted Activities on the Social Functioning in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Equine-assisted activities and therapies are increasing in popularity for treatment of ASD symptoms. This research evaluated effects of a 5-week programme of therapeutic riding on social functioning of children/adolescents (N = 15) with ASD. The effectiveness of the programme was evaluated using the autism spectrum quotient, the Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scale and the empathising and systemising quotient. Results established that the TR intervention increased empathising and reduced maladaptive behaviours. The findings also indicated that specific adaptive behaviours like socialization and...
Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy for adolescents experiencing depression and/or anxiety: A therapist’s perspective. Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs) are thought to overcome some of the limitations of traditional therapies as they do not rely exclusively on language as a medium for change. One such Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) approach involves horses as a therapeutic medium. Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy (EAP) comprises a collaborative effort between a licensed therapist and a horse professional working with clients to address treatment goals. The purpose of the present Australian-based qualitative study was to examine EAP facilitators' perspectives on the biospychosocial benefits and therapeutic outco...
Reversible downregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in stallions with a novel GnRH antagonist. The GnRH antagonist, acyline, has not yet been investigated in the stallion. Our study aimed to: (1) evaluate the downregulation of the stallion hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis by acyline through assessment of seminal parameters, testicular volume, and sexual behavior; (2) assess hormonal response of acyline-treated stallions to GnRH stimulation; and (3) verify reversibility after treatment. Stallions were assessed pretreatment and subsequently treated (every five days) for 50 days: acyline (n = 4; 330 μg/kg acyline) or control (n = 4, vehicle). The stallions were then monitored for 62...