Topic:Behavior
Equine behavior encompasses the study of horses' actions, reactions, and interactions within their environment and with other living beings. It includes the examination of innate behaviors, such as grazing and herd dynamics, as well as learned behaviors influenced by training and human interaction. Understanding equine behavior is essential for improving horse welfare, training methods, and management practices. This topic covers a range of behaviors, from social structures and communication to stress responses and problem behaviors. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the various aspects of equine behavior, including factors that influence it and its implications for horse management and welfare.
Imipramine-induced erection, masturbation, and ejaculation in male horses. Imipramine hydrochloride was administered to five male horses (400-500 kg b.wt.): one experienced young stallion, two mature normal breeding stallions, one 5-year-old stallion with erection and ejaculatory dysfunction, and one long-term castrated male horse. Oral imipramine treatment (100 to 600 mg, twice daily) led to frequent erection and masturbation while at rest in the stall in a nonsexual context. Intravenous imipramine treatment over a range of doses (50 to 1000 mg) similarly induced erection and masturbation in all animals. Erection typically occurred within 10 minutes after injection,...
Social relationships in a herd of 11 geldings and two female ponies. The social behaviour of a small herd of 10 Exmoor geldings, two Exmoor mares and one Highland pony gelding was studied in order to see whether any specific associations existed between ponies and, if so, whether these applied to all or only some of the ponies' main activities of grazing, eating hay and sleeping. Such relationships were found but only in a small number of cases did they apply to all activities. The results are discussed in relation to the individual histories of these ponies and in relation to the welfare of horses.
Influences of season and artificial photoperiod on stallions: testicular size, seminal characteristics and sexual behavior. To investigate the influence of daylength on the seasonal reproductive cycle of stallions, 21 stallions were assigned to one of three treatments: control, ambient (natural) photoperiod; S-L, 8 h light and 16 h dark (8:16) for 20 wk beginning July 16, 1982 then 16:8 from December 2, 1982 until March 5, 1984; S-S, 8:16 from July 16, 1982 until March 1984. Temperature was not controlled and was similar for all groups. Total scrotal width (TSW) was measured every 4 wk throughout the experiment. During 10 periods, semen was collected and evaluated every other day for 3 wk and sexual behavior was as...
Investigation into the use of narcotic antagonists in the treatment of a stereotypic behavior pattern (crib-biting) in the horse. Crib-biting in horses is a repetitive behavior pattern which may involve the activation of both narcotic receptors and dopamine receptors in the CNS. Crib-biting frequency, determined in 7 nontreated horses under controlled conditions, was usually linear for many hours and ranged from 0.3 to 14.9 bites/min. Intravenous or IM injections of narcotic antagonists decreased these rates to almost zero by about 20 minutes after the injection was given. The duration of the response to a single injection ranged from 20 minutes for naloxone to 4 hours or more for nalmefene and diprenorphine. Effective d...
Electromyographic properties of the myometrium correlated with the endocrinology of the pre-partum and post-partum periods and parturition in pony mares. A complete set of electromyographic recordings, plasma samples and behavioural observations were collected from 2 mares beginning 7 days pre partum, through parturition and into the early post-partum period. During the week pre partum, EMG activity was elevated, occurring 26-73% of the time. Activity was least during the day and greatest at night with no significant difference for the hours of the day or between days pre partum. During the 24 h before delivery, EMG activity was increased for 7-13 h (55-80%) during the daylight hours. EMG activity decreased 2-4 h immediately preceding delivery ...
Pharmacological manipulation of sexual behaviour in stallions. Series of experiments and clinical trials were conducted to evaluate the effects of psychoneurotropic agents on sexual behaviour of stallions. The benzodiazepine derivative, diazepam (Valium), effectively reversed experimentally suppressed precopulatory arousal and response. Diazepam treatment also blocked the negative effect of novel environment on sexual response. The dibenzazepines imipramine and clomipramine induced erection, masturbation, and ejaculation in the absence of a sexual stimulus.
Methodological issues in behavioural immunology. Sunrise over the Rincon Mountains revealed a procession of fifty horses groaning under their burden of psychologists and immunologists as a recent desert workshop got under way. The participants later sat, some rather gingerly, around a table to discuss methodological questions central to the new and sometimes embattled field variously called behavioural immunology, psychoneuroimmunology, and neuroimmunomodulation.
Laterality in the gallop gait of horses. Bilateral asymmetry in gallop stride limb contact patterns of four Quarter Horse fillies was documented by high-speed cinematography. Horses were filmed with rider by two cameras simultaneously while galloping along a straightaway. Even though signaled for each gallop lead an equivalent number of times, horses frequently switched leads, selecting the left lead nearly twice as often as the right. Velocities and stride lengths were greater for the left lead than the right, but stride frequencies did not differ between leads. Velocity effects were partitioned out in limb contact data analysis to ...
Reproductive behavior of the stallion. The reproductive behavior of semi-wild and feral horses is described briefly in order to provide a background on the reproductive patterns and the specific behavioral elements comprising courtship and mating in the horse. The reproductive behavior of the domestic stallion is discussed at length as are various breeding conditions and normal breeding performance. Finally, sexual behavior problems are considered.
Feeding behavior. Problems related to feeding behavior in horses fall into three main categories: underconsumption, overconsumption, and abnormal consumption. Anorexia may be caused by a variety of diseases and overcome by removing the underlying causes (pain, fever), and physical or chemical stimulation of appetite. "Hypophagia" may be caused by poor dentition, disease, or stress. Again, removal of the cause or stimulation by physical or chemical means may improve intakes. Acute and chronic overconsumption of feeds are reflections of the normal controls (or lack thereof) of feeding in the horse. The only relia...
Aggressive behavior problems. Accurate diagnosis of the cause of aggression in horses is essential to determining the appropriate course of action. The affective forms of aggression include fear-induced, pain-induced, intermale, dominance, protective, maternal, learned, and redirected aggressions. Non-affective aggression includes play and sex-related forms. Irritable aggression and hypertestosteronism in mares are medical problems, whereas genetic factors, brain dysfunction, and self-mutilation are also concerns.
Maternal behavior. Parturition in mares is rapid and is followed by a brief period of sensitivity to imprinting on a foal. There is large individual variation in normal maternal style, but normal mothers actively defend their foal, remain near the foal when it is sleeping, tolerate or assist nursing, and do not injure their own foal. Disturbance of a mare and foal during the early imprinting period can predispose a mare to rejection of her foal; therefore, it should be avoided. There are a variety of forms of foal rejection and numerous etiologies. Therefore, each case should be evaluated individually.
Principles of learning. This article discusses some general principles of learning as well as possible constraints and how such principles can apply to horses. A brief review is presented of experiments that were designed to assess learning in horses. The use of behavior modification techniques to treat behavior problems in horses is discussed and several examples of the use of these techniques are provided.
Rest behavior. Behavioral and physiologic characteristics of sleep are described, with special attention paid to equids. Temporal organization of sleep and environmental influences upon this behavior in horses are reviewed. Anatomic and biochemical bases and function of sleep are discussed briefly.
Techniques for taking a behavioral history. A thorough behavioral history is essential for adequate assessment of a given case. In reviewing the chief complaint, a description of what actually happened, rather than the owner's interpretation of what happened, is required. Other behavior problems, environment, rearing history, and training need to be reviewed. Sample question sets for some common problems are given.
Behavior problems of equids in zoos. Behavior problems in zoo equids commonly result from a failure to provide for needs basic to equine nature. Equids are gregarious, and failure to provide companions may result in pacing. Wild equids spend 60 to 70 per cent of their time grazing, and failure to provide ad libitum roughage contributes to the problems of pacing, cribbing, wood chewing, and coprophagia. Mimicking the normal processes of juvenile dispersal, bachelor-herd formation, and mate acquisition reduces the likelihood of agonistic and reproductive behavior problems. Infanticide can be avoided by introducing new stallions to ...
Social structure. Socially feral horses live in stable social groups characterized by one adult male, a number of adult females, and their offspring up to 2 years of age. Extra males either live by themselves or with other males in bachelor groups. The bands occupy nondefended home ranges that often overlap. Many abnormal behaviors seen in domestic horses occur because some aspect of their normal social behavior cannot be carried out in captivity.
Restraint. The object of restraint is to limit, restrict, and keep under control the animal's movement while performing different procedures. The author discusses the importance of evaluating the horse and its owner prior to employing any type of restraint, various concepts of restraint, and examples of situations in which restraint may be required.
Sexual behavior of mares. Behavior during the estrous phase of the ovulatory cycle of the mare is analogous in most ways to that of estrous females of other species. Proceptive behaviors bring the mare into the proximity of the male and attract his attention. Positioning facilitates mounting, intromission, and ejaculation. Estrous signs appear to be more intense in the few days prior to ovulation than during the transition periods that separate the recurring estrous and diestrous phases. Sexual behavior is absent during diestrus. Detection of estrus in mares is problematic in that it requires the presence (or at least ...
Developmental behavior. Examination of the developmental changes that occur in the behavior of foals reveals three major periods that can be characterized by certain types of behavior. Although the beginnings and endings of these periods are not definitive, these periods may be conceptually useful in evaluating a foal's behavior. Period of Dependence. During the first 4 weeks of life, a foal is maximally dependent on its mother for sustenance, remains near her, and has little contact with other horses or ponies of any age. Period of Socialization. During the second and third months of life, foals have rapidly increas...
Stable vices and trailer problems. Stable vices include oral vices such as cribbing, wood chewing, and coprophagia, as well as stall walking, weaving, pawing, and stall kicking. Some of these behaviors are escape behaviors; others are forms of self-stimulation. Most can be eliminated by pasturing rather than stall confinement. Trailering problems include failure to load, scrambling in the moving trailer, struggling in the stationary trailer, and refusal to unload. Gradual habituation to entering the trailer, the presence of another horse, or a change in trailer type can be used to treat these problems.
Evaluation of androgenized mares as an estrus detection aid. Ten pony mares that had developed stallion-like sexual behavior as the result of anabolic steroid treatment (boldenone undecylenate, 0.55 mg/kg intramuscularly (i.m.), once weekly for 12 injections) were evaluated for ability to aid in detecting estrus in cycling mares. In across-the-fence estrus detection trials, androgenized mares failed to elicit signs of estrus or diestrus. In 10-min pasture trials, in which each androgenized mare was placed in a group of 10 cycling mares (six of which were estrous), seven of the 10 androgenized mares elicited estrous behavior from one or two mares. Observ...
Effect of controlled exercise on libido in 2-yr-old stallions. Eight sexually inexperienced, 2-yr-old Morgan stallions were used in a consecutive two-phase design with two groups of four stallions each. Each phase lasted 16 wk, with semen collections every 14 d. Libido scores were assigned to stallions during each semen collection. Scores ranged from zero to four, with zero indicating minimum and four representing maximum libido. In Phase 1, four stallions received daily forced exercise for 16 wk, and the remaining four stallions were confined to box stalls. In Phase 2, the previously exercised stallions were confined to box stalls, and the non-exercised ...
Behaviour of the false rig: causes and treatments. The false rig is a castrated horse which shows masculine behaviour of one sort or another. The behaviour patterns reported to the author by owners of such animals and the possible causes are discussed here. Some such horses can show all the behaviour patterns of the entire, including erection and intromission. Evidence is presented that the behaviour is not hormonally induced or hormone dependent. The thesis is put forward that the behaviour shown is part of the normal social interaction between horses and possible treatments are discussed in the light of this possibility.