Topic:Biosecurity
Biosecurity in horses involves a set of management practices aimed at preventing the introduction and spread of infectious diseases within equine populations. These practices encompass measures such as quarantine protocols, vaccination schedules, sanitation procedures, and the control of animal and human movement on equine facilities. Biosecurity strategies are designed to minimize the risk of disease transmission through direct contact, fomites, vectors, and environmental exposure. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the implementation, effectiveness, and challenges of biosecurity measures in equine management.
Equine Rotaviral Diarrhea. Equine rotavirus is one of the most common causes of infectious diarrhea in foals. Although the infection itself is self-limiting, the resulting diarrhea is due to multiple mechanisms and can be severe, requiring supportive care including fluid and electrolyte support. Prompt diagnosis is important for treatment and biosecurity decisions and can be achieved by several means. Prevention, while imperfect, currently relies on vaccination of pregnant mares before parturition, ingestion of adequate colostrum from vaccinated mares and biosecurity measures.
Salmonella in Horses. Managing Salmonella in equine populations can be challenging due to the epidemiology of this disease. In particular, due to the range of clinical outcomes, the occurrence of subclinical infections, and intermittent shedding. This greatly affects the ability to detect shedding and can lead to widespread environmental contamination and transmission. The veterinary profession can reduce the risk to stablemates and their caretakers, while meeting their ethical obligation, by appropriately managing these risks within animal populations and environments.
Infectious Causes of Equine Placentitis and Abortion. A variety of infectious agents including viral, bacterial, and fungal organisms can cause equine abortion and placentitis. Knowledge of normal anatomy and the common pattern distribution of different infectious agents will assist the practitioner in evaluating the fetus and/or placenta, collecting appropriate samples for further testing, and in some cases, forming a presumptive diagnosis. In all cases, it is recommended to confirm the diagnosis with molecular, serologic, or microbiological testing. If a causative agent can be identified, then appropriate biosecurity and vaccination measures ca...
Antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella and Escherichia coli from equids sampled in the NAHMS 2015-16 equine study and association of management factors with resistance. Several studies have investigated antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli isolated from hospitalized horses, but studies conducted on community-based populations of equids are limited. The factors associated with AMR in these bacteria in the general horse population are not well understood. The primary objective of our study was to estimate the prevalence of Salmonella and describe antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella and E. coli from equids across the United States. The second objective was to identify associations between health management and biosecurity...
Implementation of biosecurity on equestrian premises: A narrative overview. Biosecurity measures are designed to prevent the introduction and spread of pathogens, and play a vital role in the equine industry, controlling endemic diseases and reducing the threat of exotic disease incursion. Equestrian premises differ with respect to disease risks, biosecurity requirements and available facilities. This narrative review summarises reported frequency of implementation for selected biosecurity measures, as well as evidence relating to potential barriers to implementation of biosecurity on equestrian premises. Possible opportunities for improvement in the adoption of equin...
Hospital-acquired and zoonotic bacteria from a veterinary hospital and their associated antimicrobial-susceptibility profiles: A systematic review. Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) are associated with increased mortality, morbidity, and an economic burden due to costs associated with extended hospital stays. Furthermore, most pathogens associated with HAIs in veterinary medicine are zoonotic. This study used published data to identify organisms associated with HAIs and zoonosis in veterinary medicine. Furthermore, the study also investigated the antimicrobial-susceptibility profile of these bacterial organisms. Unassigned: A systematic literature review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Revie...
Effectiveness of Cleaning and Sanitation of Stable Environment and Riding Equipment Following Contamination With Streptococcus equi Subsp. equi. Streptococcus equi subsp. equi (S. equi) is transmitted via contact with infected horses or fomites such as equipment or surfaces of the stable environment. Effective cleaning and sanitation is essential to minimize risk of fomite-associated infections. This study assessed the effectiveness of cleaning and sanitation of experimentally S. equi contaminated materials and equipment found in stables. Wood, concrete, plastic, leather halters, leather gloves and polyester webbing halters were inoculated with a 24-hour culture S. equi laboratory strain. In addition, selected materials were inoculated...
Safety and efficacy of a feed additive consisting of a tincture derived from the roots of Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels (dong quai tincture) for use in poultry, horses, dogs and cats (FEFANA asbl). Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of a tincture from the roots of (Oliv.) Diels (dong quai tincture) when used as a sensory additive in feed for horses, dogs and cats and in water for drinking for poultry species. The EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) concluded that the additive is safe for horses and dogs at the maximum proposed use level of 123 and 481 mg/kg complete feed, respectively. For cats, the calculated safe concentration is 184 mg/kg complete fe...
Willingness to adopt personal biosecurity strategies on thoroughbred breeding farms: Findings from a multi-site pilot study in Australia’s Hunter Valley. There are almost 9,500 full-time employees in Australia's thoroughbred horse breeding industry. During foaling, they can be exposed to bodily fluids and mucous membranes which may present risks for zoonotic disease. These risks can be mitigated through personal biosecurity strategies. The aim of this study was to identify which personal biosecurity strategies were more or less likely to be adopted by workers. Seventeen participants representing 14 thoroughbred breeding farms and three equine veterinary practices in Australia's largest thoroughbred breeding region trialed up to 16 stakeholder-n...
Safety and efficacy of a feed additive consisting of a tincture derived from the fruit of Illicium verum Hook f. (star anise tincture) for use in all animal species (FEFANA asbl). Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of a tincture from the fruit (pericarps and seeds) of Hook f. (star anise tincture) when used as a sensory feed additive for all animal species. The product is a ■■■■■ solution, with a dry matter content of approximately 1.86%. The product contained on average 0.2588% polyphenols (of which 0.0229% were flavonoids, including 0.0036% rutin), anethole (0.018%) and estragole (0.00039%). The Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP)...
Enterococcus durans infection and diarrhea in Thoroughbred foals. Diarrhea remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in neonatal foals, and correct identification of etiologic agents is essential for effective disease management. Objective: To examine the association between diarrhea and detection of Enterococcus durans or other enteropathogens in neonatal foals on 1 breeding farm in Kentucky, USA. Methods: Fifty-nine Thoroughbred foals and their broodmares. Methods: Prospective observational study. Study foals and broodmares were sampled and tested for E. durans and other enteropathogens during the first 10 days after foaling. The frequency of...
Nasal transmission of equine parvovirus hepatitis. Equine parvovirus hepatitis (EqPV-H) is highly prevalent and causes subclinical to fatal hepatitis, which can occur in outbreaks. Whereas iatrogenic transmission is well documented, the mode of horizontal transmission is not known. The virus is shed in nasal, oral and fecal secretions, and PO transmission has been reported in a single horse. Objective: Investigate the efficiency of PO and nasal transmission of EqPV-H in a larger cohort. Methods: Prospective experimental transmission study. Eleven EqPV-H-negative horses were inoculated with 5 × 10 genome equivalents EqPV-H. Serum PCR and s...
Equine Influenza Virus: An Old Known Enemy in the Americas. Equine influenza is a highly contagious disease caused by the H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV), which is endemically distributed throughout the world. It infects equids, and interspecies transmission to dogs has been reported. The H3N8 Florida lineage, which is divided into clades 1 and 2, is the most representative lineage in the Americas. The EIV infects the respiratory system, affecting the ciliated epithelial cells and preventing the elimination of foreign bodies and substances. Certain factors related to the disease, such as an outdated vaccination plan, age, training, and close contact ...
Characterization of an outbreak of equine coronavirus infection in adult horses in Switzerland. Outbreaks of equine coronavirus (ECoV) infections have been described in different parts of the world including Europe. The aim of this report was to describe clinical signs, diagnostic work-up and outcome of the first documented outbreak of ECoV in Switzerland in order to raise the awareness for the disease and its various clinical presentations. The outbreak occurred on a farm with 26 horses. Of these, seven horses developed clinical disease ranging from mild signs such as fever and anorexia to severe signs of acute colitis. One horse died due to severe endotoxemia and circulatory shock seco...
Batting below Average: Failure to Manage Fatal Zoonotic Diseases. Zoonotic diseases are those which originate in animals but are transmitted to humans often through an intermediate host such as a wild animal. In Australia Hendra virus (HeV) is a disease of horses with occasional human fatalities and which is spread by the fruit bat. This article explores the lessons learnt from managing the Queensland outbreak of HeV in 1994. The legal framework for the notification and management of prohibited matter including zoonotic diseases in Queensland and New South Wales has been strengthened by provisions in the Biosecurity Act 2015 (NSW) which create strong penalti...
An epidemiological overview of the equine influenza epidemic in Great Britain during 2019. During 2019, an epidemic of equine influenza (EI) occurred in Europe. Objective: To describe the epidemiology of the 2019 EI epidemic within Great Britain (GB). Methods: Retrospective descriptive study of laboratory confirmed EI cases. Methods: Epidemiological data were obtained from veterinary surgeons referring samples for EI virus testing. Where available, data on confirmed cases and their wider resident population on EI-infected premises were collated and described. On a national level, spatial and temporal representations, consisting of choropleth maps and epidemic curves, described the s...
Frequency of Detection of Respiratory Pathogens in Nasal Secretions From Healthy Sport Horses Attending a Spring Show in California. The objective of this study was to determine detection frequency of respiratory viruses (equine influenza virus [EIV], equine herpesvirus-1 [EHV-1], EHV-2, EHV-4, EHV-5, equine rhinitis A virus [ERAV], ERBV) and bacteria (Streptococcus equi ss. equi[S. equi], S. equi ss. zooepidemicus[S. zooepidemicus]) in 162 nasal secretions and 149 stall swabs from healthy sport horses attending a spring show in California. Nasal and stall swabs were collected at a single time point and analyzed using qPCR. The detection frequency of respiratory pathogens in nasal secretions was 38.9% for EHV-2, 36.4% for E...
Novel variant Hendra virus genotype 2 infection in a horse in the greater Newcastle region, New South Wales, Australia. In October 2021, the first contemporary detection of Hendra virus genotype 2 (HeV-g2) was made by veterinary priority disease investigation in a horse near Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, as part of routine veterinary priority disease surveillance. This discovery followed an update of Hendra virus diagnostic assays following retrospective identification of this variant from 2015 via sentinel emerging infectious disease research, enabling timely detection of this case. The sole infected horse was euthanized in moribund condition. As the southernmost recognised HeV spill-over detection to...
Review of anthrax: A disease of farm animals. Anthrax is a rapidly fatal infectious disease affecting herbivores and people. In the farm animals, cattle and sheep are more susceptible, followed by goats and horses, while dwarf pigs and Algerian sheep are relatively resistant. Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, produces spores and persists for decades in the soil, initiating an outbreak through a favorable climate shift. Anthrax is enzootic in many Asian and African countries, and is reported in Australia, some parts of Europe, and America. The clinical courses of this disease in animals are peracute, acute, subacute, and ...
Investigation of the Use of Non-Invasive Samples for the Molecular Detection of EHV-1 in Horses with and without Clinical Infection. The purpose of this study was to explore sampling options for a reliable and logistically more feasible protocol during a large EHV-1 outbreak. Seventeen horses with clinical infection as well as nineteen healthy herdmates, all part of an EHM outbreak, were enrolled in the study. Each horse was sampled two-four times at intervals of 2-6 days during the outbreak. All samples were collected using 6'' rayon-tipped swabs. Nasal secretions were used as the diagnostic sample of choice. Additional samples, including swabs from the muzzle/nares, swabs from the front limbs, rectal swabs, swabs of the f...
[Management and hygiene measures during an outbreak of herpes, influenza, strangles or infections with multidrug resistant bacteria]. The aim of this review is to describe general guidelines of hygiene measures in the horse stable as well as to provide current recommendations for an outbreak of a common infectious disease. General cleanliness, hand hygiene, avoidance of stress, regular deworming, and vaccinations belong to the basic hygiene measures in a horse herd. All new or returning equids should be submitted to a quarantine period as an important prevention measure. Repeated washing and disinfection of hands may prevent spreading of infectious agents to people and horses.The conception of a hygiene plan, including gener...
Clinical impact, diagnosis and control of Equine Herpesvirus-1 infection in Europe. Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) can affect the entire equine sector in EU, and the large outbreak reported in 2021 in Spain drew attention to the needs of the European Commission for scientific advice for the assessment of EHV-1 infection within the framework of Animal Health Law. EHV-1 is considered endemic in the EU; its main risk is linked to the characteristic of producing latent life-long infections. These can reactivate producing clinical disease, which can include respiratory, abortive and possibly fatal neurological forms. From the epidemiological and genomic viewpoint, there are no speci...
Network analysis of Standardbred horse movements between racetracks in Canada and the United States in 2019: Implications for disease spread and control. Horse movements are one of the most important factors for the spread of equine diseases, and past epidemics indicate that contact networks play an important role. Network analysis was used to describe the spatial and temporal characteristics of horse movements between Standardbred racetracks in Canada and the United States during 2019, and to characterize the network to provide a better understanding of the potential racetrack-to-racetrack spread of infectious disease within the network. Networks were constructed and analyzed as an overall network (the entire study period) and monthly networks...
Mesostigmata diversity by manure type: a reference study and new datasets from southwestern Iran. Manure-inhabiting Mesostigmata mites are important biological control agents of pest flies. However, the biodiversity of this mite community is mainly known from Europe and America, and especially from cattle manure. This study examined the diversity and abundance of Mesostigmata mites associated with various types of manure in an (intensive) agricultural region of the Middle East, i.e., the city Ahvaz and its suburbs, in southwest Iran. Mite samples were extracted from manure of cattle, buffalo, sheep, horse, poultry and quail in 30 livestock and poultry farms. In total, 40 species belonging ...
Safety and efficacy of a feed additive consisting of an extract of olibanum from Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. for use in dogs and horses (FEFANA asbl). Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of olibanum extract from Roxb. ex Colebr., when used as a sensory additive (flavouring) in feed for all dogs and horses. The FEEDAP Panel concluded that the additive under assessment is safe for horses at the maximum proposed use level of 100 mg/kg in complete feed. For dogs, the calculated safe concentration in feed is 330 mg/kg complete feed. The additive is considered safe for consumers...
Novel Hendra Virus Variant Detected by Sentinel Surveillance of Horses in Australia. We identified and isolated a novel Hendra virus (HeV) variant not detected by routine testing from a horse in Queensland, Australia, that died from acute illness with signs consistent with HeV infection. Using whole-genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, we determined the variant had ≈83% nt identity with prototypic HeV. In silico and in vitro comparisons of the receptor-binding protein with prototypic HeV support that the human monoclonal antibody m102.4 used for postexposure prophylaxis and current equine vaccine will be effective against this variant. An updated quantitative PCR dev...
Farmers’ perception on the control of gastrointestinal parasites in organic and conventional sheep production in Sweden. A questionnaire was sent to sheep owners in Sweden to get information about anthelmintic drug use. The survey also investigated how respondents experienced problems with gastrointestinal nematode infections (GIN) focusing on Haemonchus contortus. The response rate was 31% and included both conventional and organic farms. The use of anthelmintics was low (45%), among which a majority (76%) drenched ewes on a single occasion, mostly with ivermectin (59%) followed by albendazole (19%). Other drugs were used rarely, however, unawareness of GIN risk was high (19%), especially among respondents with...
Seroprevalence of Equine Herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) and Equine Herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4) in the Northern Moroccan Horse Populations. This study reports the first equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) and equine herpesvirus-4 (EHV-4) seroprevalence investigation in horse populations of Morocco in 24 years. It also aims to determine antibody titers in horses vaccinated under field conditions with a monovalent EHV-1 vaccine. Blood samples were collected from 405 horses, including 163 unvaccinated and 242 vaccinated animals. They were tested using a commercial type-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a virus neutralization test (VNT). Overall, 12.8% unvaccinated, and 21.8% vaccinated horses were positive for EHV-1. Al...
Surveillance of strangles in UK horses between 2015 and 2019 based on laboratory detection of Streptococcus equi. Previously national surveillance data for monitoring strangles (Streptococcus equi infection) in UK horses was limited. Improved awareness and knowledge of positive diagnoses would permit the optimisation of biosecurity protocols, decreasing the prevalence of strangles. Methods: Seven UK laboratories reported positive strangles diagnoses between 1 January 2015 and 31 December 2019 based on identifying Streptococcus equi via agent detection assays from field-based practitioner-submitted samples. Associated clinical history and animal signalment were collected where provided, and descriptive ana...
Management of an EHV-1 outbreak at FEI events and its international impact. Caterina Termine, Göran Akerström and Gonçalo Paixão of the Fédération Equestre Internationale's Veterinary Department describe the management of an outbreak of neurological equine herpesvirus 1 that affected a number of international showjumping events in Europe earlier this year.