Horse training involves the systematic process of teaching horses specific behaviors and skills to enhance their performance and manageability. This process encompasses a variety of techniques and methods tailored to the individual horse's temperament, age, and intended use, such as riding, racing, or working. Training regimens aim to develop desired traits such as obedience, agility, and endurance while ensuring the horse's physical and mental well-being. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore various aspects of horse training, including methodologies, behavioral outcomes, and the impact on equine welfare and performance.
Whitton RC, Murray RC, Buckley C, Goodship AE, Lekeux P.Training results in marked modelling of the subchondral bone of the carpus, but the effect of training on the subchondral bone of the distal tarsal joints is unknown. The aim of this study was to determine whether training influenced modelling of the third and central tarsal bones in Thoroughbred horses. Twelve untrained Thoroughbred horses were divided into 2 groups. Group 1 underwent a 19 week progressive training regimen on a high speed treadmill. Group 2 were walked for 40 min daily. Images of left tarsi were obtained by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with a 0.5 Tesla superconducting mag...
Riggs CM, Boyde A.The present study addressed the question of whether training induces changes in bone density in the younger racehorse in regions relevant to the genesis of the common sagittal condylar fracture pattern and, if so, the nature of such alteration. Third metacarpal bones (McIII) were obtained from 12 experimental Thoroughbred, unbroken fillies, age 18.1-21.0 months at entry to the study. Six (Group E) undertook 19 weeks of progressive high intensity exercise on a high-speed treadmill at 3% incline. Six (Group C) walked 40 min each day. Clinical bone density was studied by Computed Tomography (CT) ...
Kuwahara M, Hiraga A, Kai M, Tsubone H, Sugano S.We studied the influence of training on autonomic nervous function in the horse. For this purpose, Holter electrocardiogram (ECG) was recorded before and after training from 24 Thoroughbred horses (2-year-olds) and autonomic nervous function was evaluated by the power spectral analysis of heart rate (HR) variability. We obtained HR, low-frequency (LF) power, high-frequency (HF) power, and LF/HF ratio from recording. We set LF at 0.01-0.07 Hz and HF at 0.07-0.6 Hz. The HF power is thought to reflect primarily parasympathetic nervous function. Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous sys...
Lauderdale MA, Hinchcliff KW.The power:time-to-fatigue relationship for high-intensity exercise in man is useful in determining anaerobic work capacity. The purpose of this study was to determine the nature of this relationship in horses. Eight Standardbred horses performed 5 or 6 run-to-fatigue trials on a treadmill. Exercise intensities were chosen to induce fatigue in 30 to 240 s. The order of trials was randomised for each horse, but balanced overall for the first 4 trials. The data for power (independent variable) and time-to-fatigue (dependent variable) were tested for goodness of fit to hyperbolic, linear and expon...
Smith RK, Birch H, Patterson-Kane J, Firth EC, Williams L, Cherdchutham W, van Weeren WR, Goodship AE.In human athletes, conditioning, training and competition are commenced before skeletal maturity. Yet in equine athletics, racing of young (age 2 years) horses remains contentious. Tendon injury persists as major causes of wastage in equine athletes. Minimising injury and associated welfare issues could involve a radical approach to the timing and implementation of conditioning and training. Tendons were examined from Thoroughbreds, Dutch Warmblood foals, working horses and also a group of wild horses to evaluate effects of age, function and exercise. Gross mechanical properties did not differ...
McCutcheon LJ, Geor RJ, Shen H.The objective of this study was to determine the effects of 10 consecutive days of moderate intensity training on 1) the concentration of middle gluteal muscle Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase as determined by vanadate-facilitated 3H[ouabain binding; and 2) plasma potassium regulation before, during and after exercise at 100% of the pre-training maximum rate of oxygen consumption (VO2max). Six mature, unfit Thoroughbred horses completed both incremental (for determination of VO2max) and high-intensity exercise protocols before (HI1) and after (HI2) training. There additional horses undertook no training or e...
Pringle J, MacMillan K, Briand H, Stämpfli H.The heart rate changes during routine training in a group of 8 actively racing Standardbreds were used to simulate the training work on a treadmill (ST) and indices of exercise compared to maximal effort (MAX) on the treadmill. The following parameters were recorded during treadmill work: heart rate, velocity, O2 consumption, respiratory and stride frequency, and stride length. Blood lactate concentrations were measured before and after each work test. Heart rate during simulated training was mean +/- s.d. 87.8 +/- 5.5% heart rate in MAX, one of the 8 horses working 0.05), being higher during...
Firth EC, Goodship AE, Delahunt J, Smith T.Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured by dual x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in the carpus of 6 Thoroughbreds age 24 months that were exercised on the treadmill for 4.5 months, and of 6 matched control horses. A sagittal slab of known thickness was sawn from one or more of radius, radial carpal (Cr), third carpal (C3), and third metacarpal (Mc3) bones. After the 4.5 month treadmill exercise, there was a significantly greater volumetric BMD in the dorsal aspect of C3 (P = 0.006). Treadmill-exercised horses also had higher BMD in the dorsodistal aspect of the radius (P = 0.03), the dorsal half of ...
Tyler-McGowan CM, Golland LC, Evans DL, Hodgson DR, Rose RJ.We sought a physiological marker of overtraining in horses, using commonly practised field and laboratory tests to allow early prediction and treatment of the syndrome. Thirteen Standardbred horses were trained as follows: phase 1 (endurance, 7 weeks), phase 2 (high intensity, 9 weeks) and phase 3 (overload, 18 weeks). In phase 3 the horses were divided into 2 groups: overload training (OLT) and control (C). The OLT group exercised at greater intensities, frequencies and durations than the C group. Overtraining occurred after 31 weeks and was defined as a significant decrease in treadmill run ...
Golland LC, Evans DL, Stone GM, Tyler-McGowan CM, Hodgson DR, Rose RJ.Basal concentrations of cortisol (CORT), beta-endorphin (beta EP), growth hormone (GH) and testosterone (T) and their disruption during 32 h of recovery after treadmill exercise were investigated in 4 geldings. Blood samples were collected from resting horses every 20 min between 0600-1000 and 1500-1900 h, and hourly between 1000-1500 h on 3 consecutive days. Treadmill exercise tests comprising 2 min intervals at 30, 50, and 70% VO2max then to fatigue at 100% VO2max were conducted between 1020-1130 h on Day 2. Blood was collected before, during and 15, 30, 60 and 90 min after exercise. Mean (C...
Eaton MD, Hodgson DR, Evans DL, Rose RJ.This experiment was undertaken to determine whether there were differences in cardiorespiratory, haematological and muscular responses in horses trained at either low or moderate intensities. Ten Thoroughbred horses previously rested in paddocks for 4 months were trained 5 days/week for 9 weeks. Horses were allocated randomly into fast or slow groups and exercised the same distance each day. Training distances were 1600 m in Weeks 0 and 1 up to 4000 m in Week 9. The fast group were trained at an intensity inducing a post training blood lactate of 4-8 mmol/l. This intensity was determined for e...
Hanzawa K, Kai M, Hiraga A, Watanabe S.We examined the relationship in horses between osmotic fragility of erythrocytes (OFE) measured as the red cell haemolysis rates (HLR) in 0.56% NaCl and certain physiological characters. Animals were exercised on a treadmill: warmed up at 30% VO2max for 5 min or at 105% VO2max for 1 min, given an exercise test at 80 or 105% VO2max until fatigued, and then cooled down. The pH and temperature of the blood had a significant correlation for the HLR: r = 0.93 and 0.92 (P < 0.01) on arterial and mixed venous blood, respectively. In multiple regression analysis, heart rate and packed cell volume s...
Graham-Thiers PM, Kronfeld DS, Kline KA.Dietary protein during conditioning and exercise must support additional needs while avoiding adverse metabolic effects. Ten Arabian horses were assigned randomly to 2 diets formulated to contain 7.5 or 14.5% crude protein and 12% fat. The low-protein diet (LP) was supplemented with lysine and threonine to match the levels of these amino acids in the high-protein diet (HP). Feed intake averaged 8.1 kg/day. Dietary cation-anion difference was 181.6 and 260.4 mmol/kg for high and low protein, respectively. Following 9 weeks conditioning, horses performed a repeated sprint test: 3 min walk at 1.5...
Lacombe V, Hinchcliff KW, Geor RJ, Lauderdale MA.The purpose of this study was to develop a model of muscle glycogen depletion and to study the effect of this model on aerobic and anaerobic capacity of horses. The maximal rate of oxygen consumption (VO2max), maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD), muscle glycogen concentration and blood lactate concentration of 6 fit Standardbred horses were measured on 3 occasions 7 days apart (Trials 1, 2 and 3). Between Trials 2 and 3, strenuous exercise intended to deplete muscle glycogen was performed by exercising horses on the treadmill on 3 consecutive days. Strenuous exercise resulted in reductio...
Couroucé A, Geffroy O, Barrey E, Auvinet B, Rose RJ.Standardised exercise tests were performed at 2 different tracks and on an uninclined treadmill during the same week to determine the influence of exercise surface on different measured variables such as heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration, packed cell volume, stride frequency, stride length, gait symmetry and regularity and on different derived physiological variables such as the speed at a HR of 200 beats/min (V200), the speed at a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol/l (V4), the speed at a maximal HR (VHRmax). Five French Trotters, age 3 years, in training for 3 months prior to th...
Davies HM, Gale SM, Baker ID.The aim of this study was to determine if changes in the shape of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) during the first preparation for racing in young Thoroughbred racehorses could be measured radiographically. Lateral radiographs of each MC3 were taken when the horses commenced training, every 2 weeks for 10 weeks, and again at 6 months after the start of training. The width of the dorsal cortex (DC), palmar cortex (PC), and medulla (M) were measured at a position 2.5 cm distal to the nutrient foramen before the subject of each radiograph was identified. The following ratios were calculated: z = ...
Kai M, Takahashi T, Aoki O, Oki H.No kinetic data are available to indicate the influence of a rough track surface and the resultant loss of footing on the components of hoof vertical forces. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the influence of rough track surfaces on the components of hoof vertical forces. Seven clinically sound 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses had instrumented shoes attached to both of the fore hooves to obtain the magnitudes of consecutive forces exerted in the hoof. All horses were cantered at approximately 10 m/s on straight tracks of smooth and rough surfaces of woodchip and dirt. The instrumented...
Kobayashi M, Kuribara K, Amada A.The purpose of this investigation was to study, under field conditions, the usefulness of an incremental exercise test to measure V200 (running velocity [V] at heart rate HR[ of 200 beats/min) for evaluation of training effects in the young Thoroughbred. Five to 112 two-year-old Thoroughbreds were used over 4 years to investigate the correlation between HR and V, the influence of the track and rider's weight to V200, reproducibility of V200 and the changes of V200 as training progresses. The high correlation coefficient between HR and V, and V200 were obtained in horses that exercised smoothly...
Johnston C, Gottlieb-Vedi M, Drevemo S, Roepstorff L.The Standardbred trotter must pull a considerable load when racing and, consequently, draught loading is a common method of training in the Standardbred and the effects of loading and fatigue due to loading on the locomotor pattern was the purpose of this investigation. Four mature healthy Standardbred horses trotted with and without a horizontal-pulling loading of 34 kg until the horses were no longer willing to keep pace with the treadmill despite encouragement. Heart rate was monitored every min using a bipolar electrocardiogram. The kinematics for 5 consecutive strides were filmed. Horses ...
Kronfeld DS, Ferrante PL, Taylor LE, Tiegs W.Increases in blood [H+] and lactic acid [La-] attend fatigue. We applied Stewart's physiological model of acid-base status and simple regressions to assess the importance of independent variables and [La-] on [H+] during repeated sprints. Eight well-conditioned Arabians performed 9 sprints. Plasma from jugular vein samples was analysed for pH, PCO2, Na+, K+ and Cl-. Plasma [La-] was calculated from blood [La-], plasma [H+] from pH, SID from Na+, K+, Cl- and La-, Atot from pH, PCO2 and SID. Peaks for SID, PCO2 and [H+] were reached at sprint 1, -2 and -3, respectively. At sprint 3, the 5.7 nmol...
Golland LC, Evans DL, Stone GM, Tyler-McGowan CM, Hodgson DR, Rose RJ.The effects of training and over-training on plasma cortisol and beta-endorphin (betaEP) concentrations at rest and after standardised exercise tests and the cortisol responses to adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) administration were investigated in standardbred horses. Twelve horses were divided randomly into control and over-trained (OT) groups after 17 weeks slow- and moderate-intensity treadmill training. The standardised treadmill exercise test consisted of 2 min at velocities corresponding to 30, 50, 70 and 100% of maximum O2 consumption. Over-training, defined as a significant decrease in body...
Couroucé A, Corde R, Valette JP, Cassiat G, Hodgson DR, Rose RJ.The purpose of this study was to determine the optimal treadmill slope for trotters to produce the same heart rate and blood lactate responses as on the track during a standardized exercise test. Nine 2-year-old French trotters performed exercise tests on a training track and on a treadmill set at an incline of 0, 2 or 4%. For all horses, track testing was performed on day 1 and then on the treadmill according to a Latin-square design. The track test utilized three steps each of 3 min at speeds of 470, 530, 590 m/min and the same speeds were used on the treadmill. Derived physiological variabl...
Miyata H, Sugiura T, Kai M, Hiraga A, Tokuriki M.To determine histochemical and biochemical properties of muscle during adaptation to training on a flat or sloped track. Methods: 22 Thoroughbreds. Methods: Samples were obtained from the middle gluteus muscle before and after training programs were conducted, using a needle-biopsy technique. Training programs consisted of horses running 1,600 m on a flat or sloped track for 16 weeks. Amplitude of middle gluteus muscle activity per burst was calculated. Muscle fiber composition and area were examined on serial cross sections processed by standard histochemical staining procedures (ATPase stain...
MacLeay JM, Sorum SA, Valberg SJ, Marsh WE, Sorum MD.To determine incidence, effect on performance, and management practices associated with exertional rhabdomyolysis (ER) in Thoroughbreds. Methods: Medical records for 984 Thoroughbreds and a survey of trainers of horses with and without ER. Methods: Medical records for 984 Thoroughbreds stabled at a midwestern racetrack were examined to determine the incidence of ER during the 1995 racing season. A retrospective questionnaire was administered to trainers to determine management practices associated with ER in 59 Thoroughbreds with ER and 47 control Thoroughbreds in training. Multiple logistic r...
Hoyt DF, Wickler SJ, Cogger EA.Using published values for twelve species of birds and mammals, we investigated the effects of limb length and running speed on time of contact and step length. In addition, we measured the time of contact in horses trotting up a 10 % incline and when carrying a load averaging 19 % of their body mass. From these values, we calculated stride period and step length. Our analysis of the interspecific data yielded the following relationship between time of contact (t(c) in s) and leg length (L in m) and running speed (v in m s(-)(1)): t(c)=0.80L(0.84)/v(0.87) (r(2)=0.97). Both exponents in this re...
Bailey CJ, Reid SW, Hodgson DR, Rose RJ.A prospective study of injuries and disease in a cohort of Australian thoroughbreds in training was conducted with the participation of 24 trainers. From the horses catalogued at a major yearling sale in 1995, 169 were enrolled in the study and followed through their two- and three-year-old racing seasons. The principal aim was to quantify the time lost in training as a result of the various categories of injuries and disease, recorded as either days of modified training, or weeks rested at pasture. Shin soreness was the most common condition in two-year-olds (affecting 42 per cent of the hors...
Murray RC, Zhu CF, Goodship AE, Lakhani KH, Agrawal CM, Athanasiou KA.Dorsal carpal osteochondral injury is a major cause of reduced performance in horses undergoing high-intensity training. It was hypothesised that the mechanical behaviour and histology of cartilage are influenced by the intensity of exercise and by location within a joint. Relationships between histology and mechanical behaviour were identified in 2-year-old horses undergoing 19 weeks of high-intensity treadmill training or low-intensity exercise and then compared between groups. Dorsal and palmar test sites were identified on radial, intermediate, and third carpal articular surfaces after eut...
Manohar M, Goetz TE.To determine whether intravenous infusion of nitroglycerin would modify pulmonary arterial, capillary, or venous hypertension in strenuously exercising Thoroughbreds. Methods: 5 healthy Thoroughbred horses. Methods: Right atrial, right ventricular, and pulmonary vascular pressures were measured. Each horse was used in a control treatment (not medicated) and a nitroglycerin infusion (20 microg/kg of body weight/min) at rest and during exercise on a treadmill. Sequence of treatments was randomized for each horse, and treatments were separated by a 7-day interval. Galloping at 14.2 m/s on a 5% up...
Bayly WM, Slocombe RF, Schott HC, Hodgson DR.To determine whether i.v. administration of furosemide (250 mg) to horses before maximal exercise affected maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), breathing mechanics, or gas exchange during exercise. Methods: 7 healthy, well-conditioned Thoroughbred horses. Methods: 5 horses initially performed an incremental treadmill exercise test to determine VO2max 4 hours after i.v. administration of furosemide (250 mg i.v.) or placebo (saline [0.9% NaCl] solution). Time to fatigue and distance run were recorded. All 7 horses were then used to determine the effects of furosemide on gas exchange and breathin...
Zeyner A, Harmeyer J.L-carnitine, a betaine derivative of beta-hydroxybutyrate, is found in virtually all cells of higher animals and also in some microorganisms and plants. In animals it is synthesized almost exclusively in the liver. Two essential amino acids, i.e., lysine and methionine serve as primary substrates for its biosynthesis. Also required for its synthesis are sufficient amounts of vitamin B6, nicotinic acids, vitamin C and folate. The first discovered ergogenic function of L-carnitine is the transfer of activated long-chain fatty acids across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the mitochondrial m...
Ničová K, Bartošová J.This study aimed to identify factors that can influence show-jumping performance during top level competitions in the Western European League (2017/2018, CSI5*). The performance data of 144 riders and 222 horses were obtained from video records (FEI TV/ website). Riders with horses achieved a total of 9114 jumping-efforts over 320 obstacles including oxers (n = 142), oxers with water (n = 15), triple bars (n = 6), verticals (n = 136), verticals with water (n = 14) and walls (n = 7). Obstacles in the first round (FR) or in jump off (JO) were standing either as single (n = 6290) or as a combinat...
Fog P, Vigre H, Nielsen MK.Strongyle worm burdens are assumed to subclinically affect equine performance. This assumption appears to be particularly pronounced in the equine racing industry. Objective: Race results of Standardbred trotters are negatively affected by high strongyle faecal egg count levels. Methods: Faecal samples were obtained from 213 racing Standardbred trotters, aged ≥ 2 years, and stabled at training facilities of 21 professional trainers with license at racecourses in Denmark. Strongyle egg counts were generated using a McMaster technique. Race results were recorded as the finishing position of th...
Parks CM, Manohar M.In recent years, increasing attention has been focused on the physiological responses of the horse to maximal exercise. Cardiovascular response in near maximally exercised galloping ponies (heart rate 225 +/- 7 beats/min; whole body oxygen consumption 122 +/- 12 ml/min/kg) comprised a marked increase in blood flow to the cerebellum, myocardium, diaphragm and the working muscles, while renal blood flow decreased precipitously. Cerebral and brainstem perfusion did not vary from resting values. Transmural homogeneity of myocardial blood flow persisted during near maximal exercise. It was reported...
Littlejohn A, Snow DH.These studies investigated circulatory, respiratory and metabolic responses in four Thoroughbred geldings during the first 400 metres of galloping (mean speed 14.4 +/- 0.38 m.s-1), cantering (mean speed 10.0 +/- 0.61 m.s-1) and walking (mean speed 1.58 +/- 0.05 m.s-1) from a standing start. A radio-controlled device which collected blood samples anaerobically during each 100 m section of the exercise track allowed analyses of changes in and functional relationships of the variables measured. During the 400 m gallop, the mean heart rate (HR) increased from 125 to 201 beats.min-1 and the haemato...
Guan F, Uboh CE, Soma LR, Maylin G, Jiang Z, Chen J.Continuous erythropoietin receptor activator (CERA) is the third generation of recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) medication that retains the effect of promoting red blood cell production but has longer duration of action in the body. CERA, rhEPO, and darbepoetin alpha (DPO) can be misused to enhance performance in both human and equine athletes. To deter such misuse, a very selective and sensitive liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) method has now been developed for identification of CERA, rhEPO, and DPO in equine plasma. The method employs a new signature tryptic...
Dallap BL, Bramlage LR, Embertson RM.The purpose of this study was to evaluate screw fixation with cortical drilling as a surgical treatment for dorsal cortical stress fractures of MCIII in the Thoroughbred racehorse. Details of age, sex, limb affected, fracture assessment, and post operative recommendations were obtained from medical records and radiographs. Fracture healing was assessed radiographically at the time of screw removal. Performance evaluation was determined from race records obtained from The Jockey Club Information System, Lexington, Kentucky. Fifty-six Thoroughbred racehorses were treated surgically for stress fr...
Matheson A, Regmi SC, Jay GD, Schmidt TA, Scott WM. Local biological and biomechanical-stimuli modulate proteoglycan-4 secretion within synovial joints. For the horse, changes to proteoglycan-4 concentration and function are notable in acute joint injury and osteoarthritis. Proteoglycan-4 (also known as Lubricin) is present in the blood, however the effect of exercise on equine serum levels is unknown. The overall objective of this study was, therefore, to investigate the effect of intense exercise on serum proteoglycan-4 in thoroughbred horses. Samples of blood were taken from thoroughbreds ( = 12) during a chuckwagon racing event (Alberta, ...
McDonough P, Kindig CA, Hildreth TS, Behnke BJ, Erickson HH, Poole DC.Maximal cardiac performance is improved in man during upright compared to supine exercise. Whether cardiac performance in quadrupeds is dependent upon body position is unknown. Therefore, we undertook the present investigation to determine if peak cardiac output (Qpeak) would be influenced by body inclination in the Thoroughbred horse. To test the hypothesis, four Thoroughbred horses performed an incremental exercise protocol (speed increased by 1 m/s/min to fatigue) on both a level (L) and inclined (I: 6 degrees) treadmill. Specifically, we hypothesised that Qpeak would be increased on the in...
Platzer J, Feuerbacher EN.Positive reinforcement is becoming more common in horse training. Identifying effective reinforcers is critical for training success. The aim of this study was to determine relative reinforcer efficacy of different grains. Four horses learned to muzzle touch a target, after which they were tested using a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement with different grains as the consequence. Break points were used to determine relative reinforcer efficacy of each grain and were also converted into unit price per kilocalorie to determine if caloric value impacted reinforcer efficacy. Condition 1 c...
Cano MR, Miró F, Diz AM, Agüera E, Galisteo AM.The aim of this study was to determine the influence of a 10-month training programme on the linear, temporal and angular characteristics of the fore and hind limbs at the trot in the Andalusian horse, using standard computer-aided videography. Sixteen male Andalusian horses were observed before and after training. Six strides were randomly selected for analysis in each horse and linear, temporal and angular parameters were calculated for fore and hind limbs. The training programme used here produced significant changes in kinematic parameters, such as shortening of stride length, and increase...
Vinardell T, David F, Galezowski AM, Ali M, Qasim M, Massie SL, McCrae P, Filho S, Leguillette R.Swimming is used for rehabilitation of musculoskeletal injuries and for conditioning to improve equine fitness. However, there are anecdotal reports that suggest that tethered swimming can induce epistaxis, likely secondary to exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH). The objective of this observational, prospective study was to investigate if EIPH occurs during intensive free-swimming training sessions (5 × 70m) using 15 endurance horses. On tracheo-bronchoscopic evaluations following swimming, low grade mucus scores were observed, but no tracheal blood was observed. Bronchoalveolar la...
Hu AJ, Bramlage LR.To assess postoperative probability of racing, career longevity, and convalescent time in Thoroughbred racehorses with moderate to severe superficial digital flexor tendonitis (SDFT) in the forelimbs treated by desmotomy of the accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor tendon (ie, superior check ligament desmotomy [SCLD]). Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 332 Thoroughbred racehorses with SDFT consecutively treated by means of SCLD. Methods: Medical records and racing records were reviewed to assess return to racing, number of races completed, time to first race, and life...
Siewert C, Böttcher A, Hellige M, Beyerbach M, von Rautenfeld DB, Seifert H.This study tested for the first time an optoelectronic device (Perometer*) measuring limb volume of horses. An analysis of its application was performed regarding the influence of different types of physical exercise on the volume of the extremities. 40 horses were divided into four groups often horses, each group being exposed to exercise, differing in kind and duration of lunging, horse-ridden and riderless. The volume measurement was performed by determining the inactive value (I) after a twelfe-hour standing period, the load value (II) immediately after exercise and recovery value (III) on...
Hiraga A, Sugano S.The history of research on the exercise physiology of racehorses in Japan dates back to the 1930s. A research report entitled "Studies on exercise physiology and performance testing of the racehorse", published in 1933 by Shigeo Matsuba and Torao Shimamura of The University of Tokyo, was epoch-making and the most important study in the history of equine exercise physiology in Japan. Research results were reported from 92 Thoroughbred racehorses in a large-scale project during the period of 1928 to 1932 at the Shimofusa Imperial Farm and the Koiwai Farm, which were the two greatest racehorse fa...
Anzulewicz A, Fenner K, Hyde M, Heald S, Burattini B, Romness N, McKenzie J, Wilson B, McGreevy P.Current evidence of how human sex-related differences in riders and handlers may influence horse behaviour is limited. The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was used to collect demographic data on riders and handlers ( = 1420) and behavioural data on their horses. It includes demographic items about the sex of the respondent and how frequently the horse has been ridden or handled by male and female humans. The questionnaire then gathers observations on the horse's behaviour on the ground and under saddle or when driven Using E-BARQ's battery of 97 questions, the c...
Raulo SM, Hyyppa S, Räsänen LA, Pösö AR.The activities of lysosomal enzymes, such as beta-glucuronidase and N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase, have been shown to increase in muscle after endurance exercise. We examined whether measurable activities of lysosomal enzymes are present in equine plasma and whether the exercise-induced changes in the muscle are reflected in plasma. Six trained Standardbred trotters performed three exercise bouts with 1 h intervals and the same procedure was repeated 3 days later. Venous blood samples and muscle biopsies from the middle gluteal muscle were taken before and after exercise. The activities of b...
Bertone JJ, Paull KS, Wingfield WE, Boon JA.M-mode echocardiographic structures, and cardiac function indices, PCV, and total plasma protein values were determined for 34 endurance equine athletes before (base line) and after (after race) a 161-km endurance competition and were compared. The PCV (base-line mean, 37%; after-race mean, 46%) and total plasma protein value (base-line mean, 6.9 g/dl; after-race mean, 7.5 g/dl) increased. Compared with base-line echocardiography, after-race echocardiography indicated an increase in heart rate, as determined from the simultaneous ECG recorded on the echocardiograph (base-line mean, 41 beats/mi...
Gray BP, Teale P, Pearce CM.Analysis of equine plasma samples to detect the abuse of anabolic steroids can be complicated when the parent steroid is endogenous to the animal. Anabolic steroids are usually administered intramuscularly as synthetic esters and therefore detection of the exogenous esters provides unequivocal proof of illegal administration. An ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric (UPLC-MSMS) method for the analysis of esters of testosterone (propionate, phenylpropionate, isocaproate, and decanoate) and boldenone (undecylenate) in equine plasma has been developed. Esters were...
Chay S, Woods WE, Nugent TE, Weckman T, Houston T, Sprinkle F, Blake JW, Tobin T, Soma LR, Yocum J.Experiments to determine the residual plasma concentrations of phenylbutazone and its metabolites found in horses racing on a 'no-race day medication' or 24-h rule were carried out. One dosing schedule (oral-i.v.) consisted of 8.8 mg/kg (4 g/1000 lbs) orally for 3 days, followed by 4.4 mg/kg (2 g/1000 lbs) intravenously on day 4. A second schedule consisted of 4.4 mg/kg i.v. for 4 days. The experiments were carried out in Thoroughbred and Standardbred horses at pasture, half-bred horses at pasture, and in Thoroughbred horses in training. After administering the i.v. schedule for 4 days to Thor...
Gehlen H, Puhlmann J, Merle R, Thöne-Reineke C.Auxiliary reins are commonly used for the training of riders and horses as well as in daily training. They are often criticized when used incorrectly, as they will not help and can harm the horse by causing overwork, accidents, and injuries, which harm the horse in the long term. They also often conceal causal rider problems while trying to achieve quick success. The aim of this paper was to investigate, with an online horse-owner questionnaire, which and how often auxiliary reins were used and whether they were used appropriately. Only participants who were currently using auxiliary reins wer...
Bertuglia A, Pallante M, Pillon G, Valle D, Pagliara E, Riccio B.This case series describes an alternative surgical technique to obtain reattachment of osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) lesions in the lateral trochlear ridge of the femur (LTRF) as well as the clinical and radiological outcome of treated cases. Four Standardbred yearlings (6 lesions in total) underwent surgical fixation of large OCD defects in the LTRF under arthroscopic guidance. Reattachment of the OCD lesions was obtained using 3.0/3.7 mm headless bio-compression and absorbable poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA) screws, inserted perpendicularly to the cartilage surface through the lesion. All horse...
Velie BD, Hamilton NA, Wade CM.Many attempts have been made to improve the well-being of racing Thoroughbreds through improvements in management and veterinary care. However, these attempts are often limited by the industry's ability to regulate a large number of environmental variables and as a result have arguably had limited success in providing long-lasting change for the breed. Objective: To identify heritable durability traits for Thoroughbred horses racing in Australia and Hong Kong. Methods: Heritability analysis of a longitudinal dataset. Methods: Performance data on the Thoroughbred populations racing in Australia...
Toft K, Kjeldsen ST, Otten ND, van Galen G, Fjeldborg J, Sinding M, Hansen S.Flexion of the horse's head and neck during dressage riding reduces the pharyngeal lumen with the risk of increased upper airway resistance and upper airway obstructions. According to the Fédération Equestre Internationale, hyperflexion is achieved through force, whereas the position low-deep-round is nonforced. The objectives of this study were to evaluate (1) applied rein tension and (2) dynamic structural disorders in the upper airways in dressage horses in different gaits and different head-neck positions (HNPs). Overground endoscopy (OGE) and rein tension were evaluated in 13 clinically...
Degueurce C.The first veterinary school in the world was created in Lyon in 1761 by an equerry, Claude Bourgelat (1712-1779), a man renowned for his skill in horsemanship and horse medicine, a man fully able to understand the issues of his time. Aware of the scope of the physiocratic movement and of the need to improve the health of farm animals, he was able to understand the expectations of Henri-Léonard Bertin, Minister of King Louis XV, in proposing the creation of an establishment, breaking with traditional farriery. The creation of the Veterinary School of Lyon would mark a milestone: the considerat...
Heidbuchel A, Van Rossom S, Molenaers N, Minguet P, Jonkers I.In dressage riding, rider posture plays an important role in the performance of the exercises. The purpose of this study was to compare physical fitness and posture on an equestrian simulator between different competitive dressage rider skill levels. Participants (ten expert and twelve novice competitive dressage riders) performed a physiotherapeutic screening test and an equestrian simulator test. The expert rider group (G2) had less variability in both left (P = .002) and right (P = .021) rein force during medium canter on the simulator compared to the novice rider group (G1). The should...
Snow DH.Anabolic steroids have been employed extensively in equine practice over the past 25 years. Their usefulness is largely dependent on subjective opinions, as only minimal studies have been carried out in horses. Therefore, their use will vary markedly between practitioners depending on their personal experiences and pressures by trainers to use them. They form part of rational therapy in a variety of conditions. In addition to use for increasing muscle mass, they are used to a varying extent in the raising of yearlings and in the training and racing of horses with the view of improving performa...
Mills PC, Higgins AJ.The athletic ability of the horse is facilitated by vital physiological adaptations to high-intensity exercise, including a thin (but strong) pulmonary blood-gas barrier, a large pulmonary functional reserve capacity and a consequent maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) far higher than in other species. A high pulmonary artery pressure also serves to enhance pulmonary function, although stress failure of lung capillaries at high pulmonary transmural pressures, and the contribution of other factors which act in the exercising horse to increase pulmonary vascular tone, may lead to pathological or path...
Becker K, Lewczuk D.The application of commercial inertial measurement units has become popular in equestrian sports, which may help to eliminate a gap of knowledge concerning many aspects of biomechanics in training. This study employed the Seaver IMU system to measure jumping characteristics of horses with differing age-competition experience during regular training. It was hypothesized that experience level results in lower variability of jumping parameters. Twelve Warmblood horses aged 5 to 6 years with/without competition experience and 7 to 11 years with experience were investigated during regular training ...
De Waal A, Littlejohn A, Potgieter GM, Van der Berg J, Minnaar PI, Smith A.An apparatus was designed to collect four consecutive blood samples from exercising horses. The collection of each sample was controlled by valves activated by radiotelemetry signals transmitted by an observer. Using the device, venous blood samples were collected from ten thoroughbred racehorses before, during and after a 400 m training gallop. Blood glucose increased markedly post-exercise. Both phosphorus and potassium concentrations increased during exercise, decreased post-exercise and recovered to pre-exercise levels within 120 minutes. The system was modified to collect anaerobic sample...
You Y, Uboh CE, Soma LR, Guan F, Li X, Rudy JA, Chen J.A rapid and sensitive method was developed for the screening, quantification and confirmation of ethyl glucuronide (EG) and ethyl sulfate (ES) as biomarkers for alcohol administration to racehorses using liquid chromatography coupled on-line with triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry. Urine sample aliquots (0.1 mL) were pre-treated by protein precipitation. Separation of EG and ES was achieved on an Ultra PFP column. Isocratic elution with a flush step was performed using 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile (B). Analysis was performed by negative electrospra...
