Ligaments in horses are fibrous connective tissues that connect bones to other bones, providing stability and support to the skeletal structure. These structures are integral to maintaining joint function and facilitating movement. In equine anatomy, ligaments are involved in various functions, including supporting the limbs and allowing for efficient locomotion. Common ligaments in horses include the suspensory ligament, which plays a significant role in supporting the fetlock joint, and the nuchal ligament, which supports the head and neck. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, function, injury mechanisms, and rehabilitation of ligaments in horses.
Padaliya NR, Ranpariya JJ, Kumar D, Javia CB, Barvalia DR.The present study was conducted to evaluate the equine palmar tendon by ultrasonography (USG) in standing the position. Methods: USG of palmar tendons was performed in 40 adult horses using linear transducer having frequency of 10-18 MHz (e-soate, My Lab FIVE) and L52 linear array transducer (Titan, SonoSite) with frequencies ranging from 8 to 10 MHz. Palmar tendon was divided into 7 levels from distal to accessory carpal bone up to ergot in transverse scanning and 3 levels in longitudinal scanning. Results: The USG evaluation was very useful for diagnosis of affections of the conditions such ...
Peitzmeier MD, Koontz ZD, Lynch TM, Hughes FE, Slone DE.This retrospective study provides long-term results of medial patellar ligament (MPL) desmoplasty in horses with intermittent upward fixation of the patella (UFP) that were treated at a single referral hospital over a 7-year period. Follow-up interviews were conducted with owners, trainers, or referring veterinarians using a standardized questionnaire. Overall, 71% of horses returned to their intended use with only 18% at a higher level. Recurrence of UFP was noted in 33% of cases. Satisfaction with the procedure was generally low, with only 50% of owners being completely satisfied. Further in...
Shikh Alsook MK, Gabriel A, Salouci M, Piret J, Alzamel N, Moula N, Denoix JM, Antoine N, Baise E.Suspensory ligament (SL) injuries are an important cause of lameness in horses. The mechanical properties of connective tissue in normal and pathological ligaments are mainly related to fibril morphology, as well as collagen content and types. The purpose of this study was to evaluate, using biochemical and ultrastructural approaches, the alterations in collagen fibrils after injury. Eight Warmblood horses with visible signs of injury in only one forelimb SL were selected and specimens were examined by transmission electron microscope (TEM). Collagen types I, III and V were purified by differe...
Korosue K, Endo Y, Murase H, Ishimaru M, Nambo Y, Sato F.Flexural deformities are common conditions of growing horses and are suggested to have a relationship with the contraction of musculotendinous units. However, limited studies have documented the changes in each tendon and ligament in the metacarpal region with age. Objective: To investigate the changes in the cross-sectional area (CSA) of each tendon and ligament in the metacarpal region with age by ultrasonographic examination. Methods: Longitudinal study of foals from Day 1 to age 24 months. Methods: The CSA of the superficial digital flexor tendon, deep digital flexor tendon, accessory liga...
Parkes R, Newton R, Dyson S.Previous descriptions of the clinical features of navicular disease occurred before the widespread use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allowed a more definitive diagnosis of foot pain. The objective of this study was to compare the clinical features of horses with lesions of the podotrochlear apparatus with those with other causes of foot pain. It was hypothesised that primary navicular bone disease would be associated with more advanced radiological findings than other diagnoses. A retrospective study was performed of all horses examined at a referral centre with a definitive diagnosis of...
Jorgensen JS, Genovese RL, Döpfer D, Stewart MC.Equine carpal sheath effusion has multiple etiologies. The purpose of this retrospective study was to describe the prevalence of distinct musculoskeletal lesions lameness in a sample of horses with a clinical diagnosis of carpal sheath effusion. A total of 121 horses met inclusion criteria. Seventy-four percent (89/121) of horses were lame at presentation; middle-aged (9-18 years, 80%) and older (> 18 years, 85%) horses were lame more frequently than young horses (< 9 years, 44%). Ninety-three percent (113/121) were diagnosed with osseous and/or soft tissue abnormalities. Of these 113 ho...
Santos MP, Gutierrez-Nibeyro SD, McKnight AL, Singh K.With the recent introduction of a 0.25T rotating MRI system, clinical evaluation of the equine stifle joint is now possible in the average equine athlete. A recent publication described common abnormalities of horses with stifle lameness detected with a low-field MRI system; however, postmortem corroboration of the lesions detected was not possible. Therefore, our objective was to compare postmortem findings with low-field MRI findings in equine cadaver stifle joints. Ten fresh cadaver stifle joints from horses without clinical signs of stifle disease were evaluated using low-field MRI, gross ...
Hill AE, Gardner IA, Carpenter TE, Lee CM, Hitchens PL, Stover SM.Knowledge of the site distribution of ligamentous injuries facilitates clinical diagnosis of suspensory apparatus conditions. Objective: To determine if lesions within the suspensory ligament (SL) and distal ligaments of the proximal sesamoid bones (DSLs) were associated with suspensory apparatus failure or metacarpal lateral condylar fracture in California Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: Suspensory apparatus specimens from 327 deceased Thoroughbred racehorses were sectioned within the SL body and branches, and oblique and straight DSLs. Purple lesions ≥2 ...
Lomas AJ, Ryan CN, Sorushanova A, Shologu N, Sideri AI, Tsioli V, Fthenakis GC, Tzora A, Skoufos I, Quinlan LR, O'Laighin G, Mullen AM, Kelly JL....Tendon injuries represent a significant clinical burden on healthcare systems worldwide. As the human population ages and the life expectancy increases, tendon injuries will become more prevalent, especially among young individuals with long life ahead of them. Advancements in engineering, chemistry and biology have made available an array of three-dimensional scaffold-based intervention strategies, natural or synthetic in origin. Further, functionalisation strategies, based on biophysical, biochemical and biological cues, offer control over cellular functions; localisation and sustained relea...
Mohanty N, Gulati BR, Kumar R, Gera S, Kumar S, Kumar P, Yadav PS.Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) offer promise as therapeutic aid in the repair of tendon and ligament injuries in race horses. Fetal adnexa is considered as an ideal source of MSCs due to many advantages, including non-invasive nature of isolation procedures and availability of large tissue mass for harvesting the cells. However, MSCs isolated from equine fetal adnexa have not been fully characterized due to lack of species-specific markers. Therefore, this study was carried out to isolate MSCs from equine umbilical cord blood (UCB) and characterize them using cross-reactive markers. The plastic...
Pohlin F, Edinger J, Jenner F, Egerbacher M.To describe the anatomic and histologic features of the collateral ligaments (CLs) of the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints in cadaveric limbs obtained from nonlame horses and to compare the histologic findings with the ultrasonographic appearance of the CLs. Methods: Medial and lateral CLs of the MCP and MTP joints of 28 limbs (16 forelimbs and 12 hind limbs) from 9 adult nonlame horses euthanized for reasons unrelated to the study. Methods: 26 limbs of 8 horses were examined by ultrasonography immediately after euthanasia. Postmortem gross and histologic examinat...
Brommer H, Voermans M, Veraa S, van den Belt AJ, van der Toorn A, Ploeg M, Gröne A, Back W.Axial osteitis of the proximal sesamoid bones and desmitis of the intersesamoidean ligament has been described in Friesian horses as well as in other breeds. The objectives of this study were to review the outcome of clinical cases of this disease in Friesian horses and analyse the pathology of the bone-ligament interface. Case records of Friesian horses diagnosed with axial osteitis of the proximal sesamoid bones and desmitis of the intersesamoidean ligament in the period 2002-2012 were retrospectively evaluated. Post-mortem examination was performed on horses that were euthanized (n = 3) and...
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) offer promise as therapeutic aids in the repair of tendon and ligament disorders in sport horses. Equine allogeneic MSCs derived from umbilical cord blood (eUCB-MSCs) can be obtained in a minimally invasive fashion with successful propagation of MSCs. Objective: The objective of this study was to determine the applicability and therapeutic effect of eUCB-MSCs on tendinitis of the superficial digital flexor tendon, desmitis of the suspensory ligament, tendinitis of the deep digital flexor tendon, and desmitis of the inferior check ligament in clinical cases. Method...
Kelly PG, Pollock PJ.To describe (1) diagnosis of dynamic collapse of the cricotracheal ligament in a group of horses and (2) treatment and outcome of affected horses. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Thoroughbred horses (n = 8). Methods: Of 600 over ground dynamic endoscopic examinations performed, 8 Thoroughbred horses had cricotracheal ligament collapse (CTLC); 5 were 2 years old and in early training and 2 were mature horses in full work. CTLC was diagnosed if circumferential collapse of the cricotracheal ligament was identified during exercise. Seven horses had repeat endoscopic examination. T...
Roach JM, Pfau T, Bryars J, Unt V, Channon SB, Weller R.Kinematic evaluation of the distal limb of the horse using standard methods is challenging, mainly due to the hoof capsule restricting visualisation, but the recent development of a high-speed fluoroscopy (HSF) system has allowed in vivo cineradiographic assessment of moving skeletal structures at high speeds. The application of this non-invasive method to the equine distal limb is used to describe 'internal' distal limb kinematics including intra-horse and inter-horse variability, and variability between walk and trot. Distal limb kinematic data were collected at walk and trot from six non-la...
Contino EK, King MR, Valdés-Martínez A, McIlwraith CW.Hindlimb proximal suspensory desmopathy is a common injury of sport horses but diagnosis can be difficult because diagnostic analgesia of the region lacks specificity. Perineural analgesia of the deep branch of the lateral plantar nerve (DBLPN) has been proposed as a more specific method of isolating pain of the proximal aspect of the suspensory ligament but the technique has not been evaluated in vivo. Objective: To determine the extent of diffusion of contrast medium and mepivacaine following DBLPN analgesia using a single-needle injection technique and to determine if there is inadvertent i...
Ortved KF, Stewart AW, Fubini SL, Hackett RP.To report surgical management of 4 horses with cryptorchidism caused by failure of regression of the cranial suspensory ligament (CSL). Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Cryptorchid horses (n = 4). Methods: Horses with unilateral or bilateral cryptorchidism caused by failure of regression of the CSL were treated by removing the retained testes through a standing laparoscopic approach (2), flank laparotomy (1), or paramedian celiotomy (1). After identification of the retained testis attached to the caudal pole of the kidney by the CSL, the vascular pedicle and ductus deferens were li...
Mercati F, Pascucci L, Curina G, Scocco P, Tardella FM, Dall'aglio C, Marini C, Ceccarelli P.The transplantation of multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) is a potentially promising therapy for the treatment of tendon and ligament injuries and some forms of articular pathology in horses. This study investigated the effects of storage conditions on MSCs. Equine adipose tissue-derived MSCs (eAd-MSCs) were stored at 4 °C and at room temperature (RT) for 24 and 48 h, and viability, doubling time, expression of CD44 and CD90 antigens, clonogenic/differentiation potentials, and karyotype were subsequently evaluated. The eAd-MSC viability was significantly affected by the storage ...
Halper J.Though soft tissue disorders have been recognized and described to some detail in several types of domestic animals and small mammals for some years, not much progress has been made in our understanding of the biochemical basis and pathogenesis of these diseases in animals. Ehlers-Danlos syndrome described in dogs already in 1943 and later in cats affects mainly skin in these animals. The involved skin is thin and hyperextensible with easily inflicted injuries resulting in hemorrhagic wounds and atrophic scars. Joint laxity and dislocation common in people are less frequently found in dogs. No...
Halper J.Though soft tissue disorders have been recognized and described to some detail in several types of domestic animals and small mammals for some years, not much progress has been made in our understanding of the biochemical basis and pathogenesis of these diseases in animals. Ehlers-Danlos syndrome described in dogs already in 1943 and later in cats affects mainly skin in these animals. The involved skin is thin and hyperextensible with easily inflicted injuries resulting in hemorrhagic wounds and atrophic scars. Joint laxity and dislocation common in people are less frequently found in dogs. No...
Ferris DJ, Frisbie DD, Kisiday JD, McIlwraith CW, Hague BA, Major MD, Schneider RK, Zubrod CJ, Kawcak CE, Goodrich LR.To report outcome of horses with femorotibial lesions (meniscal, cartilage or ligamentous) treated with surgery and intra-articular administration of autologous bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs). Methods: Prospective case series. Methods: Horses (n = 33). Methods: Inclusion criteria included horses that had lameness localized to the stifle by diagnostic anesthesia, exploratory stifle arthroscopy and subsequent intra-articular administration of autologous BMSCs. Case details and follow-up were gathered from medical records, owner, trainer or veterinarian. Outcome was defined as...
Williams MR, Arnoczky SP, Pease AP, Stick JA.To determine the microvascular anatomy of the suspensory ligament of the forelimb of horses. Methods: 17 cadaveric forelimbs from 9 adult horses with no known history of forelimb lameness. Methods: The median artery of the forelimb was cannulated proximal to the antebrachiocarpal joint and injected with contrast medium for CT evaluation of the gross vasculature (n = 2) or India ink to evaluate the microvasculature (12). Routine histologic evaluation was performed on an additional 3 forelimbs to confirm the microvascular anatomy. Results: The vascular supply of the suspensory ligament of the fo...
Gutiérrez-Crespo B, Kircher PR, Carrera I.The aim of this study was to describe the appearance of the ligamentous structures of the occipitoatlantoaxial (OAA) region in the normal horse by 3 tesla (3T) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The MRI images of the longitudinal odontoid ligament, tectorial membrane, dorsal and ventral atlantoaxial ligaments, dorsal atlantooccipital membrane with its reinforcing ligaments, and the lateral atlantooccipital ligaments of 10 horse cadavers were evaluated. All ligaments and membranes were identified in all planes, except for the lateral atlantooccipital ligament in the sagittal plane due to its cra...
Patruno M, Martinello T.In order to treat frequently occurring conditions such as traumatic rupture or over-strain tendinopathies, the techniques of tissue engineering and cell-based therapies have become an accepted modus operandi since other available remedies appear to be ineffective in restoring the original structure and function of the injured tissue. However, the mechanisms accounting for the effectiveness of novel regenerative approaches in treating equine tendon and ligament injuries remain poorly characterised. In this review we summarize and discuss the most significant results of our research regarding bi...
Plevin S, McLellan J.Limited information exists regarding the prognosis for juvenile racehorses sustaining injury to the suspensory ligament branch insertion (JISBI). Objective: To investigate the effect of JISBI on racing performance; and to assess whether the severity of JISBI is prognostically important. Methods: Retrospective cohort study. Methods: Records were reviewed for 896 juvenile Thoroughbreds in training, to identify horses with JISBI limited to one branch (cases). The ability of cases to start a race was compared to their cohorts. Race records of maternal siblings were compared to cases. Results: The ...
McLellan J, Plevin S.Sesamoiditis is believed to be associated with injury to the suspensory branch attachment and is a common radiographic finding in yearling Thoroughbreds. No study has investigated relationships between yearling sesamoiditis and subsequent development of suspensory ligament branch injury (SLBI) in early racehorse training. Objective: To establish the prevalence of SLBI within a population of juvenile training racehorses and retrospectively investigate relationships between clinical signs of SLBI and sesamoiditis to determine if sesamoiditis is a risk factor for clinical suspensory branch injury...
Taintor J, Caldwell F, Almond G.A mare was evaluated for acute left forelimb lameness with effusion of the carpal flexor sheath. No osseous abnormalities were noted during radiographic examination. Significant disruption of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon was seen during ultrasonographic examination. Carpal sheath effusion and lameness resolved after medical treatment. Une jument a été évaluée pour une boiterie aiguë de la patte avant gauche avec effusion de la gaine du fléchisseur carpien. Aucune anomalie osseuse n’a été observée durant l’examen radiographique. Une perturbation importa...
Claerhoudt S, Bergman EH, Saunders JH.This study describes a detailed computed tomographic reference of the normal equine foot. Ten forefeet of five adult cadavers, without evidence of orthopaedic disease, were used. Computed tomography (CT) was performed on all feet. Two-millimetre thick transverse slices were obtained, and sagittal and dorsal planes were reformatted. The CT images were matched with the corresponding anatomic slices. The phalanges and the distal sesamoid bone showed excellent detail. The extensor and flexor tendons (including their attachments) could be clearly evaluated. The collateral (sesamoidean) ligaments co...
Harrison SM, Whitton RC, Kawcak CE, Stover SM, Pandy MG.The equine metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint is frequently injured, especially by racehorses in training. Most injuries result from repetitive loading of the subchondral bone and articular cartilage rather than from acute events. The likelihood of injury is multi-factorial but the magnitude of mechanical loading and the number of loading cycles are believed to play an important role. Therefore, an important step in understanding injury is to determine the distribution of load across the articular surface during normal locomotion. A subject-specific finite-element model of the MCP joint was devel...
Lustgarten M, Redding WR, Labens R, Morgan M, Davis W, Seiler GS.Tendon and ligament injuries are common causes of impaired performance in equine athletes. Gray-scale ultrasonography is the current standard method for diagnosing and monitoring these injuries, however this modality only provides morphologic information. Elastography is an ultrasound technique that allows detection and measurement of tissue strain, and may provide valuable mechanical information about equine tendon and ligament injuries. The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility, reproducibility, and repeatability of elastography; and to describe elastographic characteristics...
Denoix JM.Conventional clinical examination remains of medical and economic value for diagnosis of soft tissue injuries in the equine athlete. This procedure requires concentration and rigor to establish the diagnosis, and, if possible, some experience to better evaluate the prognosis. None of the new imaging techniques can replace the physical examination, but each may provide additional information. These sophisticated methods are bringing considerable progress in the knowledge of locomotor injuries in the horse and a tremendous improvement in our ability to diagnose precisely lamenesses and limitatio...
Bowker RM, Atkinson PJ, Atkinson TS, Haut RC.To examine articular cartilage of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint and distal sesamoidean impar ligament (DSIL) as well as the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) for adaptive responses to contact stress. Methods: Specimens from 21 horses. Methods: Pressure-sensitive film was inserted between articular surfaces of the DIP joint. The digit was subjected to a load. Finite element models (FEM) were developed from the data. The navicular bone, distal phalanx, and distal attachments of the DSIL and DDFT were examined histologically. Results: Analysis of pressure-sensitive film revealed signific...
Dyson SJ, Dik KJ.The use of diagnostic ultrasonography has greatly enhances our ability to diagnose injuries of tendons and tendon sheaths that were previously either unrecognized or poorly understood. For may of these injuries, there is currently only a small amount of follow-up data. This article considers injuries of the deep digital flexor tendon and its accessory ligament, the carpal tunnel syndrome soft tissue swellings on the dorsal aspect of the carpus, intertubercular (bicipital) bursitis and bicipital tendinitis, injuries of the gastrocnemius tendon, common calcaneal tendinitis, rupture of peroneus (...
Jeffcott LB, Kold SE.The clinical and radiological characteristics of stifle lameness in 86 horses are described. The majority of these cases had been lame for some weeks before referral. The most frequent diagnoses made were osteochondrosis dissecans (13 per cent) and subchondral bone cyst (38 per cent). Both of these conditions were seen principally in Thoroughbreds at or before the onset of training. The other bone lesions encountered were osteoarthritis (3 per cent), fractures (4 per cent) and "epiphysitis" (1 per cent). The commonest soft tissue condition was an atypical or partial upward fixation of the pate...
Hill AE, Gardner IA, Carpenter TE, Lee CM, Hitchens PL, Stover SM.Knowledge of the site distribution of ligamentous injuries facilitates clinical diagnosis of suspensory apparatus conditions. Objective: To determine if lesions within the suspensory ligament (SL) and distal ligaments of the proximal sesamoid bones (DSLs) were associated with suspensory apparatus failure or metacarpal lateral condylar fracture in California Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: Suspensory apparatus specimens from 327 deceased Thoroughbred racehorses were sectioned within the SL body and branches, and oblique and straight DSLs. Purple lesions ≥2 ...
Nagy A, Dyson S.Detailed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and histological appearances of the proximal aspect of the suspensory ligament (PSL) in the forelimb of nonlame horses have not been previously documented. Objective: 1) to describe detailed anatomy of the PSL, 2) describe high- and low-field MRI and histological appearances of the PSL and surrounding structures in the forelimb of horses with no carpal or proximal metacarpal pain, 3) assess the relationship between age, breed, gender, height, bodyweight and MRI findings and 4) describe the histological appearance of the PSL and compare this with MRI fi...
Southwood LL, Stashak TS, Kainer RA, Wrigley RH.To describe a tenoscopic approach to the carpal sheath for desmotomy of the accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor tendon. Methods: The surgical procedure was developed with use of normal forelimbs from equine cadavers and experimental horses. Methods: Twelve equine cadaveric forelimbs, 4 forelimbs from 2 horses anesthetized for terminal surgical laboratories, and 10 forelimbs from five experimental horses were used. Methods: The limbs were positioned lateral side up with the carpus slightly flexed. After distention of the carpal sheath, a portal was made approximately 2 cm proxi...
Bertone AL, Goin S, Kamei SJ, Mattoon JS, Litsky AS, Weisbrode SE, Clarke RB, Plouhar PL, Kaeding CC.Xenogeneic porcine small intestinal submucosa (SIS) is a natural, biodegradable matrix that has been successfully used as a scaffold for repair of tissue defects. The goal of this study was to compare a collateral ligament transection surgically reconstructed with an anchored SIS ligament to a sham-operated control procedure for the correction of joint laxity using an equine model. Ten metacarpophalangeal joints from 10 horses had complete transection of the lateral collateral ligament. In 6 horses, the collateral ligament was reconstructed with a multilaminate strip of SIS anchored with screw...
Jansen MO, van den Bogert AJ, Riemersma DJ, Schamhardt HC.The load distribution over tendinous structures in the equine forelimb was studied by computing forces from in vivo signals of implanted liquid-metal strain gauges in 5 ponies. For validation, these tendon forces were converted to joint moments, which were summed and compared to the calculated joint moments caused by the ground reaction force. Mean peak forces per kilogram body weight (n = 5) amounted to 5.2 N/kg for the superficial digital flexor tendon, 3.8 N/kg for the deep digital flexor tendon, 7.3 N/kg for the distal accessory (check) ligament and 8.4 N/kg for the third interosseous musc...
Bras JJ, Lillich JD, Beard WL, Anderson DE, Armbrust LJ, Frink E, Lease K.To (1) compare the effect of a collateral ligament sparing surgical approach with an open surgical approach on mechanical properties of proximal interphalangeal joint (PIPJ) arthrodesis, and (2) to determine the percentage of articular cartilage surface removed by transarticular (TA) drilling with different diameter drill bits. Methods: Randomized paired limb design. Methods: Cadaveric equine limbs (n=76). Methods: Cadaveric PIPJ were drilled using a 3.5, 4.5, or 5.5 mm drill bit at 80-84° to the dorsal plane to remove articular cartilage and subchondral bone from the distal articular surface...
Dyson S, Pool R, Blunden T, Murray R.There is limited knowledge about the interpretation of alterations in the distal sesamoidean impar ligament (DSIL) detected using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and their correlation with histopathology. Objective: There would be: 1) a correlation between histopathology and MRI findings; and 2) a relationship between MR abnormalities at the origin and the insertion of the DSIL, between insertion and body; and origin and body. Methods: Fifty limbs from 28 horses were examined using high-field MRI and histopathology. MR abnormalities of the DSIL, its origin on the navicular bone and its insert...
Dakin SG, Dyson SJ, Murray RC, Tranquille C.Osseous abnormalities associated with collateral ligament (CL) injury of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint have been documented using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) but there is currently limited information about the frequency of osseous pathology associated with CL injury. Objective: To determine the frequency of occurrence of osseous abnormality coexistent with CL injury of the DIP joint and describe the distribution and character of osseous lesions; and to establish if there was an association between osseous abnormality and increased radiopharmaceutical uptake (IRU). Objective: The...
Pöschke A, Krähling B, Failing K, Staszyk C.The equine periodontal ligament (PDL) is a fibrous connective tissue that covers the intra-alveolar parts of the tooth and anchors it to the alveolar bone-it, therefore, provides a similar function to a tendinous structure. While several studies have considered the formation and structure of tendons, there is insufficient information particularly on the molecular composition of the PDL. Especially for the equine PDL, there is limited knowledge concerning the expression of genes commonly regarded as typical for tendon tissue. In this study, the gene expression of, e.g., (, and fibrocartilage m...
Zhang C, Svensson RB, Montagna C, Carstensen H, Buhl R, Schoof EM, Kjaer M, Magnusson SP, Yeung CC.Tendon is a highly organized, dense connective tissue that has been demonstrated to have very little turnover. In spite of the low turnover, tendon can grow in response to loading, which may take place primarily at the periphery. Tendon injuries and recurrence of injuries are common in both humans and animals in sports. It is unclear why some areas of the tendon are more susceptible to such injuries and whether this is due to intrinsic regional differences in extracellular matrix (ECM) production or tissue turnover. This study aimed to compare populations of tenocytes derived from the tendon c...
Gray SN, Puchalski SM, Galuppo LD.Injuries of the intercarpal ligaments are an important cause of lameness in performance horses. The purpose of this prospective cadaver study was to determine whether computed tomography (CT) arthrography would be a feasible method for visualizing and characterizing intercarpal ligaments in the horse. One cadaver limb from each of eight nonlame horses was collected immediately after euthanasia. For each limb, overlapping 2.0 mm CT images were acquired before and after injection of iodinated contrast medium into the antebrachiocarpal joint, middle carpal joint, and carpal sheath. Spin echo magn...
Renner-Martin TF, Forstenpointner G, Weissengruber GE, Eberhardt L.Although donkeys play an important role as companion or pack and draught animals, theriogenological studies and anatomical data on the genital organs of the jenny are sparse. To provide anatomical descriptions and morphometric data, the organa genitalia feminina, their arteries and the ligamentum latum uteri of 10 adult but maiden jennies were examined by means of gross anatomical and morphometric techniques. In comparison with anatomical data of horses obtained from literature the genital organs of jennies appear to be more voluminous in relation to the body mass and the position of the ovari...
Busoni V, Snaps F, Trenteseaux J, Dondelinger RF.The purpose of this study was to describe the normal magnetic resonance (MR) imaging characteristics of the palmar structures of the equine podotrochlear apparatus by means of retrospective evaluation of MR imaging studies of 16 cadaver limbs. The articular aspect of the distal sesamoid bone was not evaluated in this study. Equine digits were imaged with a human knee radiofrequency coil in a 1.5 T magnetic field, using spin echo (SE) T1-weighted, turbo spin echo proton density (TSE PD)-weighted with and without fat saturation (FS), and FS TSE T2-weighted sequences. The limbs were dissected aft...
Santos MP, Gutierrez-Nibeyro SD, McKnight AL, Singh K.With the recent introduction of a 0.25T rotating MRI system, clinical evaluation of the equine stifle joint is now possible in the average equine athlete. A recent publication described common abnormalities of horses with stifle lameness detected with a low-field MRI system; however, postmortem corroboration of the lesions detected was not possible. Therefore, our objective was to compare postmortem findings with low-field MRI findings in equine cadaver stifle joints. Ten fresh cadaver stifle joints from horses without clinical signs of stifle disease were evaluated using low-field MRI, gross ...
Herrick WC, Kingsbury HB, Lou DY.This paper describes the result of an investigation of strains and strain rates which normally occur in the tendons of the equine foreleg and presents stress-strain curves and moduli for the tendons at these rates. It has previously been demonstrated that resistance to flexion of the joints of the distal part of the equine foreleg is provided by a passive system of tendons and ligaments. It is therefore possible, using a large displacement, high-rate testing machine, to duplicate in the laboratory the strain rates and forces which are normally produced in the tendons of the foreleg of the runn...
Davankar SP, Deane NJ, Davies AS, Firth EC, Hodge H, Parry DA.Since horses bred for the racing industry are subject to rigorous training procedures there is a real need to understand how the stresses experienced by their tendons and ligaments in vivo relate to the major load-bearing elements-the collagen fibrils. Consequently, an age-related study has been made of the collagen fibril diameter distributions of nine ligaments in and around the equine carpus. This is the first stage of a larger study aimed at understanding the ultrastructural changes that occur as a result of exercise. Most of the ligaments showed a bimodal diameter distribution at maturity...
Parkes R, Newton R, Dyson S.Previous descriptions of the clinical features of navicular disease occurred before the widespread use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allowed a more definitive diagnosis of foot pain. The objective of this study was to compare the clinical features of horses with lesions of the podotrochlear apparatus with those with other causes of foot pain. It was hypothesised that primary navicular bone disease would be associated with more advanced radiological findings than other diagnoses. A retrospective study was performed of all horses examined at a referral centre with a definitive diagnosis of...
Smith RK, McGuigan MP, Hyde JT, Daly AS, Pardoe CH, Lock AN, Wilson AM.Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint extension is primarily resisted by the digital flexor tendons and suspensory ligament. A variety of external support techniques are used to protect these supporting structures from or after injury by resisting MCP joint extension, although not all are effective and/or practical for use in an exercising horse. In this study, 7 forelimbs were loaded in vitro to determine the effect of a simple gamgee bandage, a 3-layered bandage with and without a contoured palmar splint, a neoprene exercise boot, and an innovative carbon fibre composite exercise boot (Dalmar tend...
Mostafa MB, Elemmawy YM.There is limited knowledge about causes of musculoskeletal injury in jumping Thoroughbred horses. The objective of this study was to describe the relationships between musculoskeletal disorders and linear and angular limb measurements acquired from photographs of horses with markers at specific reference points. The diagnosed musculoskeletal disorders in either fore or hind limbs were flexor tendonitis, suspensory ligaments desmitis, and osteoarthritis of the distal intertarsal and tarso-metatarsal and carpometacarpal joints. Lengths and angles in 17 clinically normal jumping Thoroughbred hors...
Nagy A, Dyson S.Detailed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and histological appearances of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon (AL-DDFT) have not been documented previously in detail. Objective: To: 1) describe anatomical connections between the AL-DDFT and adjacent structures; 2) describe high-field and low-field MRI and histological appearances of the AL-DDFT in the forelimb of horses with no carpal or proximal metacarpal pain; and 3) assess the relationship between age, breed, gender, height, weight and MRI findings. Methods: Ten forelimbs were dissected to determine anatomical relation...
Nagy A, Dyson S.While low-field magnetic resonance (MR) images can provide useful information in the investigation of proximal metacarpal region pain, an in-depth knowledge of anatomy and comparison with more detailed high-field images are essential to understand the meaning of different signal intensities within tissues. This anatomic description is based on low-field and high-field MR examination of 30 cadaver metacarpal regions of mature horses with no history of carpal or proximal metacarpal pain. Normal MR anatomy is described and is illustrated by high-field and low-field MR images in transverse, sagitt...
Pollitt CC, Collins SN.The suspensory apparatus of the distal phalanx (SADP) is functionally and clinically important. Objective: To investigate SADP form and function and the microanatomy of its insertion zone. Methods: Descriptive gross and microanatomy. Methods: The feet of 6 normal Standardbred horses were sectioned into blocks along the traditional perpendicular transverse axis and along functional axes of the SADP, decalcified and processed for staining with haematoxylin and eosin, Jones' periodic acid silver methenamine or Masson's trichrome stains. Results: In traditional midline toe transverse plane section...
Dyson S.Clinical, ultrasonographic and radiographic features of proximal suspensory desmitis in the forelimb and the hindlimb are described. Acute cases may present with slight, localised, oedematous swelling, heat, distension of the medial palmar (plantar) vein and/or pain, whereas chronic cases or those rested immediately after onset of lameness usually have no detectable clinical signs suggestive of the source of pain. In these cases local analgesia is required to identify pain in the proximal metacarpal (metatarsal) region. Transverse ultrasonographic images of the suspensory ligament usually yiel...
Boehart S, Arndt G, Carstanjen B.The aim of the study was to determine morphometric values of the superficial and deep digital flexor tendon, the inferior check ligament and the suspensory ligament in the palmar metacarpal region of sound Haflinger horses using ultrasonography and to assess the influence of different factors on them. The findings were compared with the literature. A total of 30 sound Haflinger mares aged 4-20 years were used. Transverse ultrasound images were obtained with an 8-10 linear MHz transducer and the cross-sectional area, the circumference and the dorsopalmar and lateromedial width were determined f...
Atkinson F, Evans R, Guest JE, Bavin EP, Cacador D, Holland C, Guest DJ.Tendon injuries are a common cause of morbidity in humans. They also occur frequently in horses, and the horse provides a relevant, large animal model in which to test novel therapies. To develop novel cell therapies that can aid tendon regeneration and reduce subsequent reinjury rates, the mechanisms that control tendon tissue regeneration and matrix remodelling need to be better understood. Although a range of chemical cues have been explored (growth factors, media etc.), the influence of the mechanical environment on tendon cell culture has yet to be fully elucidated. To mimic the in vivo e...
Fowlie JG, Arnoczky SP, Lavagnino M, Stick JA.To identify potential functional-anatomical characteristics of the cranial horn attachment of the medial meniscus (MM) that may help explain the pathogenesis of the common tear patterns that have been reported. Objective: Full extension of the stifle generates a significant increase in tensile forces within the cranial meniscotibial ligament (CrMTL) of the MM, which may predispose this structure to injury. Methods: The effect of femorotibial angle (160°, 150°, 140° and 130°) on tensile forces in the axial and abaxial components of the CrMTL was examined in 6 mature cadaver stifles using an...
