Locomotion in horses refers to the movement mechanisms that enable horses to walk, trot, canter, and gallop. It involves a complex interplay of the musculoskeletal and nervous systems, allowing for efficient and coordinated movement. Studies on equine locomotion often focus on gait analysis, biomechanics, and the impact of various factors such as conformation, training, and surface conditions on movement. Research in this area contributes to understanding performance, diagnosing lameness, and improving rehabilitation practices. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the biomechanics, gait patterns, and factors influencing locomotion in horses.
Walker VA, Tranquille CA, Newton JR, Dyson SJ, Brandham J, Northrop AJ, Murray RC.Dressage horses are often asked to work in lengthened paces during training and competition, but to date there is limited information about the biomechanics of dressage-specific paces. Preliminary work has shown increased fetlock extension in extended compared with collected paces, but further investigation of the kinematic differences between collected, medium and extended trot in dressage horses is warranted. Objective: Investigation of the effect of collected vs. medium/extended trot on limb kinematics of dressage horses. Methods: Prospective kinematic evaluation. Methods: Twenty clinically...
Clayton HM, Schamhardt HC, Hobbs SJ.In this study, sagittal plane ground reaction forces (GRFs) in ridden elite dressage horses performing 'collected trot' and in 'passage' over ground were determined. In-ground force plates captured GRF data from four Dutch Warmblood and four Lusitano horses ridden by their trainers. At least three stance phases were analysed for forelimbs and hind limbs per horse. The variables extracted were vertical and longitudinal (braking, propulsive) force maxima, their times of occurrence and the respective impulses for forelimbs and hind limbs. Lusitanos had lower vertical impulses than Dutch Warmblood...
Greve L, Pfau T, Dyson S.Equine movement symmetry is changed when turning, which may induce alterations in thoracolumbosacral kinematics; however, this has not previously been investigated. Our objectives were to document thoracolumbar movement in subjectively sound horses comparing straight lines with circles on both reins and to relate these observations to the objectively determined symmetry/asymmetry of hindlimb gait. Fourteen non-lame horses were assessed prospectively in a non-random, cross-sectional survey. The horses were trotted in straight lines and lunged on both reins and inertial sensor data collected at ...
Martin P, Cheze L, Pourcelot P, Desquilbet L, Duray L, Chateau H.Many factors associated with the saddle and the rider could produce pain in horses thus reducing performance. However, studies of horse-saddle-rider interactions are limited and determining their effects remains challenging. The aim of this study was to test a novel method for assessing equine thoracic and lumbar spinal movement under the saddle and collect data during trotting. Back movement was measured using inertial measurement units (n = 5) fixed at the levels of thoracic vertebrae T6, T12 and T16, and lumbar vertebrae L2 and L5. To compare unridden and ridden conditions, three horses...
Gorissen BMC, Wolschrijn CF, Serra Bragança FM, Geerts AAJ, Leenders WOJL, Back W, van Weeren PR.Foals stand and walk immediately after birth, but insight into the subsequent longitudinal development of their gait kinetics in the early juvenile phase and the possible influence of osteochondrosis thereon is lacking. Objective: To quantify gait kinetics in foals during the first half year of life, taking into account their osteochondrosis status. Methods: Prospective, cohort study performed at a single stud farm. Methods: Pressure plate measurements at walk and trot from 11 Dutch Warmblood foals during the first 24 weeks of life were used to determine body mass normalised peak vertical forc...
Bragança FM, Bosch S, Voskamp JP, Marin-Perianu M, Van der Zwaag BJ, Vernooij JCM, van Weeren PR, Back W.Inertial measurement unit (IMU) sensor-based techniques are becoming more popular in horses as a tool for objective locomotor assessment. Objective: To describe, evaluate and validate a method of stride detection and quantification at walk and trot using distal limb mounted IMU sensors. Methods: Prospective validation study comparing IMU sensors and motion capture with force plate data. Methods: A total of seven Warmblood horses equipped with metacarpal/metatarsal IMU sensors and reflective markers for motion capture were hand walked and trotted over a force plate. Using four custom built algo...
Okuda Y, Moe HH, Moe KK, Shimizu Y, Nishioka K, Shimogiri T, Mannen H, Kanemaki M, Kunieda T.Myanmar native horses are small horses used mainly for drafting carts or carriages in rural areas and packing loads in mountainy areas. In the present study, we investigated genotype distributions and allele frequencies of the LCORL/NCAPG, MSTN and DMRT3 genes, which are associated with body composition and locomotion traits of horses, in seven local populations of Myanmar native horses. The genotyping result of LCORL/NCAPG showed that allele frequencies of C allele associated with higher withers height ranged from 0.08 to 0.27, and 0.13 in average. For MSTN, allele frequencies of C allele ass...
Sevane N, Dunner S, Boado A, Cañon J.The Spanish Purebred horses, also known as Andalusian horses, compete to the highest standards in international dressage events. Gait and conformation could be used as early selection criteria to detect young horses with promising dressage ability. Although the genetic background of equine size variation has been recently uncovered, the genetic basis of horse conformational and locomotive traits is not known, hampered by the complex genetic architecture underlying quantitative traits and the lack of phenotypic data. The aim of this study was to validate the loci associated with size in 144 Spa...
Loscher DM, Meyer F, Kracht K, Nyakatura JA.Many ungulates show a conspicuous nodding motion of the head when walking. Until now, the functional significance of this behaviour remained unclear. Combining in vivo kinematics of quadrupedal mammals with a computer model, we show that the timing of vertical displacements of the head and neck is consistent with minimizing energy expenditure for carrying these body parts in an inverted pendulum walking gait. Varying the timing of head movements in the model resulted in increased metabolic cost estimate for carrying the head and neck of up to 63%. Oscillations of the head-neck unit result in w...
Clayton HM.In spite of having large height and body mass, horses are cursorial animals with an extensive gait repertoire and considerable athletic abilities. The limbs have evolved so that the heavy musculature is confined to the proximal limbs while the distal limbs are light in weight with a single functional digit and long, lightweight tendons to move and support the distal joints. These adaptations reduce the moment of inertia and decrease the energy expended to protract and retract the limbs during locomotion. There is a division of labor between the forelimbs, which have a pillar-like construction ...
Maliye S, Marshall JF.OBJECTIVE To characterize and describe the compensatory load redistribution that results from unilateral hind limb lameness in horses. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 37 client-owned horses. PROCEDURES Medical records were reviewed to identify horses with unilateral hind limb lameness that responded positively (by objective assessment) to diagnostic local anesthesia during lameness evaluation and that were evaluated before and after diagnostic local anesthesia with an inertial sensor-based lameness diagnosis system. Horses were grouped as having hind limb lameness only, hind limb and...
Lopes MA, Dearo AC, Lee A, Reed SK, Kramer J, Pai PF, Yonezawa Y, Maki H, Morgan TL, Wilson DA, Keegan KG.OBJECTIVE To evaluate head, pelvic, and limb movement to detect lameness in galloping horses. ANIMALS 12 Thoroughbreds. PROCEDURES Movement data were collected with inertial sensors mounted on the head, pelvis, and limbs of horses trotting and galloping in a straight line before and after induction of forelimb and hind limb lameness by use of sole pressure. Successful induction of lameness was determined by measurement of asymmetric vertical head and pelvic movement during trotting. Differences in gallop strides before and after induction of lameness were evaluated with paired-sample statistic...
Dahl VE, Hitchens PL, Stover SM.OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of racetrack surface and shoe characteristics on formation of wear grooves in the horseshoes of racehorses. SAMPLES 1,121 horseshoes from 242 Thoroughbred racehorses collected during routine horseshoeing procedures at 4 racetracks with dirt or synthetic surfaces. PROCEDURES Data for 1,014 horseshoes from 233 racehorses were analyzed. Horseshoes were photographed, and length and width of grooves formed at the heels of the solar surface of horseshoes were measured on the photographs. Effects of racetrack, racetrack surface, and shoe characteristics (eg, shoe si...
Walker AM, Applegate C, Pfau T, Sparkes EL, Wilson AM, Witte TH.Movement of a racehorse simulator differs to that of a real horse, but the effects of these differences on jockey technique have not been evaluated. We quantified and compared the kinematics and kinetics of jockeys during gallop riding on a simulator and real horses. Inertial measurement units were attached mid-shaft to the long bones of six jockeys and the sacrum of the horse or simulator. Instrumented stirrups were used to measure force. Data were collected during galloping on a synthetic gallop or while riding a racehorse simulator. Jockey kinematics varied more on a real horse compared to ...
Marck A, Berthelot G, Foulonneau V, Marc A, Antero-Jacquemin J, Noirez P, Bronikowski AM, Morgan TJ, Garland T, Carter PA, Hersen P, Di Meglio JM....Locomotion is one of the major physiological functions for most animals. Previous studies have described aging mechanisms linked to locomotor performance among different species. However, the precise dynamics of these age-related changes, and their interactions with development and senescence, are largely unknown. Here, we use the same conceptual framework to describe locomotor performances in Caenorhabditis elegans, Mus domesticus, Canis familiaris, Equus caballus, and Homo sapiens. We show that locomotion is a consistent biomarker of age-related changes, with an asymmetrical pattern througho...
McKeever KH.An increasing percentage of the equine population is more than 15 years old, many performing various athletic activities into their 20s. Studies of aged humans have led to a fine tuning of exercise prescription to promote fitness while preventing adverse and potentially dangerous effects of excessive exercise. However, limited data exist regarding the exercise capacity of aged horses. This article presents an overview of published studies on aging-induced decreases in physiologic function and exercise capacity in the horse. The information presented can be used as a guide for exercise prescrip...
Wetmore LA, Pascoe PJ, Shilo-Benjamini Y, Lindsey JC.OBJECTIVE To determine the locomotor response to the administration of fentanyl in horses with and without the G57C polymorphism of the μ-opioid receptor. ANIMALS 20 horses of various breeds and ages (10 horses heterozygous for the G57C polymorphism and 10 age-, breed-, and sex-matched horses that did not have the G57C polymorphism). PROCEDURES The number of steps each horse took was counted over consecutive 2-minute periods for 20 minutes to determine a baseline value. The horse then received a bolus of fentanyl (20 μg/kg, IV), and the number of steps was again counted during consecutive 2-...
Nout-Lomas YS, Page KM, Kang HG, Aanstoos ME, Greene HM.There is poor agreement between observers of equine neurological gait abnormalities using the modified Mayhew grading scale. Objective: To stimulate a dose-dependent ataxia in horses through xylazine administration and identify quantifiable relevant gait parameters. Methods: Balanced, randomised, 2-way crossover design. Methods: Eight horses were assessed before and after administration of xylazine (low dose and high dose). Gait analyses performed before and after xylazine administration included: 1) kinematic data collected on an equine high-speed treadmill (flat and 10% decline) and from acc...
Panagiotopoulou O, Rankin JW, Gatesy SM, Hutchinson JR.Horse racing is a multi-billion-dollar industry that has raised welfare concerns due to injured and euthanized animals. Whilst the cause of musculoskeletal injuries that lead to horse morbidity and mortality is multifactorial, pre-existing pathologies, increased speeds and substrate of the racecourse are likely contributors to foot disease. Horse hooves have the ability to naturally deform during locomotion and dissipate locomotor stresses, yet farriery approaches are utilised to increase performance and protect hooves from wear. Previous studies have assessed the effect of different shoe desi...
Hobbs SJ, Bertram JE, Clayton HM.Background. Although the trot is described as a diagonal gait, contacts of the diagonal pairs of hooves are not usually perfectly synchronized. Although subtle, the timing dissociation between contacts of each diagonal pair could have consequences on gait dynamics and provide insight into the functional strategies employed. This study explores the mechanical effects of different diagonal dissociation patterns when speed was matched between individuals and how these effects link to moderate, natural changes in trotting speed. We anticipate that hind-first diagonal dissociation at contact increa...
Pfau T, Daly K, Davison J, Bould A, Housby N, Weller R.Military working horses perform a high proportion of work on road surfaces and are shod frequently to deal with high attrition rates. The authors investigate the influence of shoeing on movement symmetry as an indirect indicator of mechanical differences affecting force production between contralateral limbs. In this quantitative observational study, inertial sensor gait analysis was performed in 23 Irish sport type horses (4-21 years, 1.58-1.85 m) in full ceremonial work at the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery. Changes in two movement symmetry measures (SI: symmetry index; MinDiff: dif...
Brinkmann L, Gerken M, Hambly C, Speakman JR, Riek A.During winter, free-living herbivores are often exposed to reduced energy supply at the same time that energy needs for thermoregulation increase. Several wild herbivores as well as robust horse breeds reduce their metabolism during times of low ambient temperature and food shortage. Thyroid hormones (THs) affect metabolic intensity and a positive effect of THs on basal metabolic rate (BMR) has been demonstrated in mammals and birds. As BMR and field metabolic rate (FMR) are often assumed to be intrinsically linked, THs may represent a reliable indicator for FMR. To test this hypothesis, 10 Sh...
Regatieri IC, Eberth JE, Sarver F, Lear TL, Bailey E.Horse owners choose whether or not to train American Saddlebred horses (ASHs) to perform the 4-beat gaits called rack and slow gait. The rack and slow gait are similar to ambling gaits shown to be associated with variation in the DMRT3 gene in other breeds but are trained rather than naturally occurring gaits. A premature stop codon in the DMRT3 gene (DMRT3_Ser301STOP) caused by the Ch23:g.22999655C>A SNP has an effect on the pattern of locomotion in horses and allows for the pacing gait and strong association with performance of ambling gaits in diverse breeds. We used horse show records to i...
Lee JN, Lee MW, Byeon YH, Lee WS, Kwak KC.In this study, we classify four horse gaits (walk, sitting trot, rising trot, canter) of three breeds of horse (Jeju, Warmblood, and Thoroughbred) using a neuro-fuzzy classifier (NFC) of the Takagi-Sugeno-Kang (TSK) type from data information transformed by a wavelet packet (WP). The design of the NFC is accomplished by using a fuzzy c-means (FCM) clustering algorithm that can solve the problem of dimensionality increase due to the flexible scatter partitioning. For this purpose, we use the rider's hip motion from the sensor information collected by inertial sensors as feature data for the cla...
Staiger EA, Abri MA, Silva CA, Brooks SA.Following domestication, man selected the horse primarily for the purpose of transportation rather than consumption; this selective strategy created divergent traits for locomotion. At intermediate speeds, beyond the flat walk, the horse can perform a range of diagonal and lateral 2-beat or 4-beat gait patterns. The Tennessee Walking Horse (TWH) is the only U.S. breed able to perform an even-timed 4-beat gait (the "running-walk") at intermediate speeds; however, within the breed, there is remaining variation in gait type. To investigate the contribution of genetics to this unique trait, blood ...
Jones KE.The specialization of equid limbs for cursoriality is a classic case of adaptive evolution, but the role of the axial skeleton in this famous transition is not well understood. Extant horses are extremely fast and efficient runners, which use a stiff-backed gallop with reduced bending of the lumbar region relative to other mammals. This study tests the hypothesis that stiff-backed running in horses evolved in response to evolutionary increases in body size by examining lumbar joint shape from a broad sample of fossil equids in a phylogenetic context. Lumbar joint shape scaling suggests that st...
Amitrano FN, Gutierrez-Nibeyro SD, Schaeffer DJ.OBJECTIVE To determine and compare the effect of hoof boots (HBs) and shoes with a toe extension on stance duration, ground reaction force, and sole length in contact with the ground in nonlame horses during walking. ANIMALS 6 nonlame Standardbreds. PROCEDURES Force plate gait analyses of the forelimbs were performed while the horses were walking barefoot before manipulation of feet (baseline), while the horses were walking fitted with HBs, while the horses were walking shod with toe-extension shoes, and while the horses were walking barefoot after shoe removal. Horses underwent radiography of...
Bell RP, Reed SK, Schoonover MJ, Whitfield CT, Yonezawa Y, Maki H, Pai PF, Keegan KG.To investigate associations between inertial sensor and stationary force plate measurements of hind limb lameness in horses. Methods: 21 adult horses with no lameness or with mild hind limb lameness. Methods: Horses were instrumented with inertial sensors and evaluated for lameness with a stationary force plate while trotting in a straight line. Inertial sensor-derived measurements of maximum and minimum pelvic height differences between right and left halves of the stride were compared with vertical and horizontal ground reaction forces (GRFs). Stepwise linear regression was performed to inve...
Clayton HM.The central body axis or core is a key component in controlling body posture and providing a stable platform for limb movements and generation of locomotor forces. Persistent dysfunction of the deep stabilizing muscles seems to be common in horses indicating a need for core training exercises to restore normal function. Core training should be performed throughout the horse's athletic career to maintain a healthy back and used therapeutically when back pain is identified. This article reviews the structure and function of the equine thoracolumbar spine with special reference to function, dysfu...
Art T, Lekeux P.Five healthy, fit Standardbreds (mean +/- SEM, 490.4 +/- 15.0 kg, 4.0 +/- 0.5 years) were studied during a standardized test carried out on a treadmill. The test consisted of an 8-minute warm-up and a 9-minute exercise period (1 minute at 1.7, 4, 7, 8, 9, and 10 m/s; 2 minutes at 4 m/s; and a 1-minute walk at a 6% slope). Respiratory airflow, tidal volume (V(T)), and respiratory frequency (f) were continuously recorded, using 2 ultrasonic pneumotachographs connected to a face mask and mass spectrometer. Oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide output, and expired minute volume (V(E)) were obtained on a b...
Parsons KJ, Pfau T, Wilson AM.During locomotion up an incline, power is required to elevate the centre of mass. This is provided when the animal's limbs are in contact with the ground. Measurements of stride timing variables from multiple limbs during high speed, over-ground locomotion would enhance our understanding of locomotor powering during changes in terrain. This study measured foot-on and foot-off times from galloping horses using a previously validated system of limb-mounted accelerometers and a global positioning system data logger. A detailed track survey provided incline information from all areas of the track....
Wickler SJ, Hoyt DF, Cogger EA, Hall KM.Horses have a tendency to utilize a relatively narrow set of speeds near the middle of a much broader range they are capable of using within a particular gait, i.e., a preferred speed. Possible explanations for this behavior include minimizing musculoskeletal stresses and maximizing metabolic economy. If metabolic economy (cost of transport, CT) and preferred speeds are linked, then shifts in CT should produce shifts in preferred speed. To test this hypothesis, preferred speed was measured in trotting horses (n = 7) unloaded on the level and loaded with 19% of their body weight on the level. T...
Jones KE.The specialization of equid limbs for cursoriality is a classic case of adaptive evolution, but the role of the axial skeleton in this famous transition is not well understood. Extant horses are extremely fast and efficient runners, which use a stiff-backed gallop with reduced bending of the lumbar region relative to other mammals. This study tests the hypothesis that stiff-backed running in horses evolved in response to evolutionary increases in body size by examining lumbar joint shape from a broad sample of fossil equids in a phylogenetic context. Lumbar joint shape scaling suggests that st...
Merkens HW, Schamhardt HC, van Osch GJ, Hartman W.Ground reaction force (GRF) patterns from 20 clinically sound Dutch Warmbloods were recorded at the right fore-leading canter, and a standard horse was composed. These GRF data for the standard can be used for evaluation of jumping horses. The GRF patterns were asymmetric for all 4 limbs. The leading right forelimb decelerated the body. The trailing left forelimb propelled the body and decelerated it slightly. The trailing left hind limb propelled, and the leading right hind limb contributed to deceleration and propulsion. Referred to the maximal vertical load of the leading right forelimb, th...
Hobbs SJ, Serra Braganca FM, Rhodin M, Hernlund E, Peterson M, Clayton HM.In the sport of dressage, one or more judges score the combined performance of a horse and rider with an emphasis on the technical correctness of the movements performed. At the end of the test, a single score is awarded for the 'general impression', which considers the overall performance of the horse and rider as a team. This study explored original measures that contributed to the general impression score in a group of 20 horse-rider combinations. Horses and riders were equipped with inertial measurement units (200 Hz) to represent the angular motion of a horse's back and the motions of a r...
von Peinen K, Wiestner T, Bogisch S, Roepstorff L, van Weeren PR, Weishaupt MA.The exact relationship between the saddle pressure pattern during one stride cycle and the movements of horse and rider at the walk are poorly understood and have never been investigated in detail. Objective: The movements of rider and horse account for the force distribution pattern under the saddle. Methods: Vertical ground reaction forces (GRF), kinematics of horse and rider as well as saddle forces (FS) were measured synchronously in 7 high level dressage horses while being ridden on an instrumented treadmill at walk. Discrete values of the total saddle forces (FStot) were determined for e...
Eizema K, van den Burg M, Kiri A, Dingboom EG, van Oudheusden H, Goldspink G, Weijs WA.The horse is one of the few animals kept and bred for its athletic performance and is therefore an interesting model for human sports performance. The regulation of the development of equine locomotion in the first year of life, and the influence of early training on later performance, are largely unknown. The major structural protein in skeletal muscle, myosin heavy-chain (MyHC), is believed to be primarily transcriptionally controlled. To investigate the expression of the MyHC genes at the transcriptional level, we isolated cDNAs encoding the equine MyHC isoforms type 1 (slow), type 2a (fast...
Keegan KG, Wilson DA, Smith BK, Wilson DJ.To determine whether kinematic changes induced by heel pressure in horses differ from those induced by toe pressure. Methods: 10 adult Quarter Horses. Methods: A shoe that applied pressure on the cuneus ungulae (frog) or on the toe was used. Kinematic analyses were performed before and after 2 levels of frog pressure and after 1 level of toe pressure. Values for stride displacement and time and joint angles were determined from horses trotting on a treadmill. Results: The first level of frog pressure caused decreases in metacarpophalangeal (fetlock) joint extension during stance and increases ...
Back W, Schamhardt HC, Barneveld A.The canter is a 3 beat asymmetrical gait with a difference in timing between left and right limbs. To evaluate intralimb asymmetry at the canter, a group of 24 Dutch Warmbloods was evaluated on a treadmill (7 m/s) using a modified CODA-3 optoelectronic gait analysis system. Thirteen horses cantered in the left lead ('leading limb' group) and 11 in the right lead ('trailing limb' group) during left forelimb recordings, while 11 horses were at the left and 13 were at the right lead during left hindlimb recordings. Kinematic differences between horses from the 'leading limb' and 'trailing limb' g...
Clayton HM.High speed cinematography was used to describe the stride kinematics in a group of six, sound horses subjected to two farriery treatments, designated 'normal' and 'acute' hoof angulation. Normal was defined as having the dorsal hoof wall aligned with the pastern axis, whereas the acute hoof angulation was approximately 10 degrees lower than the normal angle for the individual horse. The acute angle was achieved by allowing the toes to grow relatively longer than the heels. The results of a multivariate analysis of variance showed significant differences between the two farriery treatments in t...
Leleu C, Bariller F, Cotrel C, Barrey E.Locomotion analysis is increasingly used to assess the gait of horses in the selection and training of equine athletes. We have developed a specific locomotor test for fast trotting harnessed horses that uses an accelerometric device. We describe here the reproducibility of the locomotor test and the validation of its use to analyse trotters on the racetrack. We measured the performance of eight horses under the same conditions three times in a single week. We then tested the influence of five tracks on the variables measured using eight different trotters every two days. The horses trotted at...
Hermanson JW, Cobb MA.Two of the forearm flexors of the horse, the superficial and deep digital flexor muscles, are critical to support the digital and fetlock joints, exhibit differing insertions, and are passively supported by the proximal and distal check ligaments, respectively. These two muscles differ in histochemical composition and architecture. The differences are correlated with the different stress levels transmitted through their tendons, and the different frequencies of clinical breakdown that have been reported. Both muscles contain type I and type IIa fibers. A few type IIb fibers occurred in the dee...
Combie J, Shults T, Nugent EC, Dougherty J, Tobin T.The locomotor responses of horses given morphine and fentanyl were blocked or lessened by administration of naloxone or acepromazine. Naloxone given at the dosage of 0.015 mg/kg completely blocked the locomotor activity induced in horses given fentanyl (0.020 mg/kg of body weight). The locomotor stimulation produced by morphine given at the dosage of 2.4 mg/kg was reduced by 75% of naloxone (0.020 mg/kg). Acepromazine partially blocked the locomotor responses to fentanyl and morphine. This blockade activity reached its peak about 30 minutes after acepromazine was given (IV) and lasted more tha...
Ruet A, Biau S, Arnould C, Galloux P, Destrez A, Pycik E, Boichot L, Lansade L.This study investigated the relationships between four behavioral and postural indicators of a compromised welfare state in loose boxes (stereotypies, aggressive behaviors toward humans, withdrawn posture reflecting unresponsiveness to the environment, and alert posture indicating hypervigilance) and the way horses perceived riding. This perception was inferred using a survey completed by the usual riding instructor and during a standardized riding session (assessment of behaviors and postures, qualitative behavior assessment (QBA) and characterization of the horses' locomotion using an inerti...
Gan Z, Wiestner T, Weishaupt MA, Waldern NM, David Remy C.This paper presents a simplistic passive dynamic model that is able to create realistic quadrupedal walking, tölting, and trotting motions. The model is inspired by the bipedal spring loaded inverted pendulum (SLIP) model and consists of a distributed mass on four massless legs. Each of the legs is either in ground contact, retracted for swing, or is ready for touch down with a predefined angle of attack. Different gaits, that is, periodic motions differing in interlimb coordination patterns, are generated by choosing different initial model states. Contact patterns and ground reaction forces...
Brocklehurst C, Weller R, Pfau T.Turning is commonly used as a diagnostic aid in equine lameness examinations. Forces experienced on the circle differ from those in a straight line, necessitating an inward lean of the body and asymmetric head/pelvic excursion, which are important parameters for lameness investigations. To better understand gait adaptations to lungeing in normal horses, the effect of turn direction on body lean in trot and in canter warrants further investigation. In this study, it was hypothesised that, on average and independent of gait, the observed body lean angle would be consistent with the ratio between...
Val-Calvo J, Darcy J, Gibbons J, Creighton A, Egan C, Buckley T, Schmalenberger A, Fogarty U, Scortti M, Vázquez-Boland JA.A multidrug-resistant clone of the animal and human pathogen Rhodococcus equi, MDR-RE 2287, has been circulating among equine farms in the United States since the 2000s. We report the detection of MDR-RE 2287 outside the United States. Our finding highlights the risk for MDR-RE spreading internationally with horse movements.
Hodson E, Clayton HM, Lanovaz JL.The objective was to study associations between kinematics and ground reaction forces in the hindlimb of walking horses. Video (60 Hz) and force (2000 Hz) data were gathered for 8 strides from each of 5 sound horses during the walk. Sagittal plane kinematics were measured concurrently with the vertical and longitudinal ground reaction forces. The hindlimb showed rapid loading and braking in the initial 10% stride. The stifle, tarsal and coffin joints flexed and the fetlock joint extended during this period of rapid loading. The vertical ground reaction force showed 2 peaks separated by a dip; ...
Ringmark S, Jansson A, Lindholm A, Hedenström U, Roepstorff L.The aim of this study was to document effects of two high-intensity training regimes on horse health. Sixteen Standardbred horses in training from September as 1-year-olds with the goal to race as 3-year-olds were used in a 2.5 year study. Horses were trained in either a control training program (C-group) or in a program with 30% reduced high intensity distance compared to the C-group (R-group). Clinical examinations were performed nine times. Locomotion asymmetry was registered with a sensor-based system 17 times. There was no difference in health scores, locomotion asymmetry or veterinary tr...
Ask K, Andersen PH, Tamminen LM, Rhodin M, Hernlund E.This study investigated the relationship between orthopedic pain experienced at rest, and degree of movement asymmetry during trot in horses with induced reversible acute arthritis. Orthopedic pain was assessed with the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS), the Equine Utrecht University Scale of Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-FAP), the Equine Pain Scale (EPS), and the Composite Orthopedic Pain Scale (CPS). Reliability and diagnostic accuracy were evaluated with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and area under the curve (AUC). Unassigned: Eight healthy horses were included in this experimental s...
Matsuura A, Sakuma S, Irimajiri M, Hodate K.The aim of this study was to determine the loading capacity of a trotting Taishuh pony by gait analysis using a motion analysis system. Seven Taishuh Ponies (5 mares and 2 geldings) and their rider were fitted with a marker (70 mm in diameter placed on their chest) and recorded by 2 high-resolution digital DVD cameras (at a sampling frequency of 60 Hz) as they were trotting along a straight course. Each horse performed 7 tests: 1 test with a loaded weight of 70 kg, 5 tests with random loaded weights between 80 kg and 120 kg, and a final test with a loaded weight of 70 kg again. Three-dimension...
MacKechnie-Guire R, Pfau T.High-level dressage horses regularly perform advanced movements, requiring coordination and force transmission between front and hind limbs across the thoracolumbosacral region. This study aimed at quantifying kinematic differences in dressage horses when ridden in sitting trot-i.e. with additional load applied in the thoracolumbar region-compared with trotting in-hand. Inertial sensors were glued on to the midline of the thoracic (T) and lumbar (L) spine at T5, T13, T18, L3 and middle of the left and right tubera sacrale of ten elite dressage horses (Mean±SD), age 11±1 years, height 1.70±0...
Weishaupt MA, Wiestner T, Hogg HP, Jordan P, Auer JA, Barrey E.The purpose of this study was to verify the sensitivity of 2 gait analysis methods in detecting subtle lameness and to compare the results to the traditional orthopaedic evaluation. Twenty-two horses were evaluated (1) subjectively by 3 different experienced clinicians and (2) objectively with synchronised ground reaction force and accelerometric gait measurements on a treadmill. The horses were assigned for each of the 3 methods independently to one of 3 groups (GR): sound, lameness front limb, lameness hindlimb. Additionally, for each horse, the affected limb (AL) and degree of lameness (DL)...
Chateau H, Degueurce C, Denoix JM.Understanding of the biomechanical effects of heel elevation remains incomplete because in vivo studies performed with skin markers do not measure the actual movements of the 3 digital joints. Objective: To quantify the effects of 6 degree heel wedge on the 3-dimensional movements of the 4 distal segments of the forelimb in the walking horse. Methods: Four healthy horses were used. Kinematics of the distal segments was measured invasively with a system based on ultrasonic triangulation. Three-dimensional rotations of the digital joints were calculated by use of a 'joint coordinate system' (JCS...
Staiger EA, Almén MS, Promerová M, Brooks S, Cothran EG, Imsland F, Jäderkvist Fegraeus K, Lindgren G, Mehrabani Yeganeh H, Mikko S, Vega-Pla JL....A previous study revealed a strong association between the DMRT3:Ser301STOP mutation in horses and alternate gaits as well as performance in harness racing. Several follow-up studies have confirmed a high frequency of the mutation in gaited horse breeds and an effect on gait quality. The aim of this study was to determine when and where the mutation arose, to identify additional potential causal mutations and to determine the coalescence time for contemporary haplotypes carrying the stop mutation. We utilized sequences from 89 horses representing 26 breeds to identify 102 SNPs encompassing the...
Hobbs SJ, Nauwelaerts S, Sinclair J, Clayton HM, Back W.Asymmetry in forelimb dorsal hoof wall angles, termed unevenness, is associated with forelimb gait asymmetries, but compensatory mechanisms and out of plane ground reaction forces (GRFs) due to unevenness have yet to be documented. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the effects of fore hoof unevenness on contralateral fore and hind limb force vectors patterns, in both sagittal and frontal planes. A group of n = 34 riding horses were classified into four groups: hoof angle difference of more than 1.5 degrees (UNEVEN; n = 27), including higher left fore (HIGH-LF; n = 12), higher ...
Williams GE, Silverman BW, Wilson AM, Goodship AE.To assess the force plate as a diagnostic aid in equine locomotor abnormalities, particularly for abnormalities such as navicular disease that do not have specific diagnostic criteria. Methods: 17 Thoroughbreds without observable locomotor abnormalities (group A), 6 Thoroughbreds with superficial digital flexor tendon injury (group B), and 8 Thoroughbreds with navicular disease (group C). Methods: Using a force plate, ground reaction force patterns were recorded at the trot. Peak limb vertical force and force/time curve parameters were derived from 4 identifiable points at the beginning and en...
Matsuura A, Irimajiri M, Matsuzaki K, Hiraguri Y, Nakanowatari T, Yamazaki A, Hodate K.The aim of this study was to establish a method for estimating loading capacity for Japanese native horses by gait analysis using an accelerometer. Six mares of Japanese native horses were used. The acceleration of each horse was recorded during walking and trotting along a straight course at a sampling frequency of 200 Hz. Each horse performed 12 tests: one test with a loaded weight of 80 kg (First 80 kg) followed by 10 tests with random loaded weights between 85 kg and 130 kg and a final test with a loaded weight of 80 kg again. The time series of acceleration was subjected to fa...
Cruz AM, Maninchedda UE, Burger D, Wanda S, Vidondo B.OBJECTIVE To determine repeatability of gait variables measured by use of extremity-mounted inertial measurement units (IMUs) in nonlame horses during trotting under controlled conditions of treadmill exercise. ANIMALS 10 horses. PROCEDURES Six IMUs were strapped to the metacarpal, metatarsal, and distal tibial regions of each horse. Data were collected in a standardized manner (3 measurements/d on 3 d/wk over a 3-week period) while each horse was trotted on a treadmill. Every measurement consisted of a minimum of 20 strides from which a minimum of 10 strides was selected for analysis. Spatial...
