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Topic:Locomotion
Locomotion in horses refers to the movement mechanisms that enable horses to walk, trot, canter, and gallop. It involves a complex interplay of the musculoskeletal and nervous systems, allowing for efficient and coordinated movement. Studies on equine locomotion often focus on gait analysis, biomechanics, and the impact of various factors such as conformation, training, and surface conditions on movement. Research in this area contributes to understanding performance, diagnosing lameness, and improving rehabilitation practices. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the biomechanics, gait patterns, and factors influencing locomotion in horses.
A 2.5 year study on health and locomotion symmetry in young Standardbred horses subjected to two levels of high intensity training distance. The aim of this study was to document effects of two high-intensity training regimes on horse health. Sixteen Standardbred horses in training from September as 1-year-olds with the goal to race as 3-year-olds were used in a 2.5 year study. Horses were trained in either a control training program (C-group) or in a program with 30% reduced high intensity distance compared to the C-group (R-group). Clinical examinations were performed nine times. Locomotion asymmetry was registered with a sensor-based system 17 times. There was no difference in health scores, locomotion asymmetry or veterinary tr...
A test of the universal applicability of a commonly used principle of hoof balance. This study used a UK trimming protocol to determine whether hoof balance is achieved (as defined by equivalence of geometric proportions) in cadaver limbs (n = 49) and two cohorts of horses (shod, n = 6, and unshod, n = 20; three trimming cycles). To determine equivalence, dorsal hoof wall length (DHWL), distance from the heel buttress to the centre of pressure (HBUT-COP) and distance from dorsal toe to centre of rotation (DT-COR) were calculated as a proportion of bearing border length (BBL) using digital photography. Geometric proportions were tested using Fieller's test of equiv...
What’s New in Old Horses? Postmortem Diagnoses in Mature and Aged Equids. Postmortem findings in 241 equids admitted to a teaching hospital that were at least 15 years old at autopsy were reviewed (1) to determine disease prevalence, (2) to compare the cause of death (or euthanasia) in equids 15 to 19 years of age (n = 116) with that in equids ≥20 years of age (n = 125), and (3) to catalog coexisting lesions in equids with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID). Breed and sex were evenly distributed between the age groups. Death or euthanasia was attributed to disease of the digestive system (41.5%), pituitary gland (12.9%), locomotor system (10.0%), nervous...
Validity and practical utility of accelerometry for the measurement of in-hand physical activity in horses. Accelerometers are valid, practical and reliable tools for the measurement of habitual physical activity (PA). Quantification of PA in horses is desirable for use in research and clinical settings. The objective of this study was to evaluate a triaxial accelerometer for objective measurement of PA in the horse by assessment of their practical utility and validity. Horses were recruited to establish both the optimal site of accelerometer attachment and questionnaire designed to explore owner acceptance. Validity and cut-off values were obtained by assessing PA at various gaits. Validation study...
Passive Dynamics Explain Quadrupedal Walking, Trotting, and Tölting. This paper presents a simplistic passive dynamic model that is able to create realistic quadrupedal walking, tölting, and trotting motions. The model is inspired by the bipedal spring loaded inverted pendulum (SLIP) model and consists of a distributed mass on four massless legs. Each of the legs is either in ground contact, retracted for swing, or is ready for touch down with a predefined angle of attack. Different gaits, that is, periodic motions differing in interlimb coordination patterns, are generated by choosing different initial model states. Contact patterns and ground reaction forces...
Effect of sedation on fore- and hindlimb lameness evaluation using body-mounted inertial sensors. Diagnostic analgesia is an integral part of equine lameness examinations, but is challenging to perform in uncooperative horses. Using sedation to facilitate this might, because of analgesic and ataxia-inducing effects, interfere with lameness evaluation. Objective: To evaluate whether sedation with low-dose xylazine would alter lameness amplitude as measured by body-mounted inertial sensors. Methods: Controlled experiment. Methods: Forty-four horses were randomly split into 2 groups. Lameness was measured using body-mounted inertial sensors before and after injection of xylazine (0.3 mg/kg b...
Accelerometric and dynamometric measurements of the impact shock of the equine forelimb and hindlimb at high speed trot on six different tracks – preliminary study in one horse. The repetitive impulsive loading resulting from foot and
ground interaction in the initial part of the stance phase
is often mentioned as a source of risk of developing
subchondral bone damage leading to osteoarthritis, both
in man and horses. Because of the high frequency of this
phenomenon, called the impact shock, accelerometry is
the preferred method to measure it. In the horse, measurement of the hoof ’s vertical deceleration at impact
has been shown to be a useful method for comparing
different track surfaces. However, accelerometric studies
comparing surfaces in trotters at h...
Associations between hoof shape and the position of the frontal plane ground reaction force vector in walking horses. To determine the frontal plane position of the ground reaction force vector at its centre of pressure under the hoof of walking horses, and its projection through the distal limb joints, and to relate this to hoof geometric measurements. Methods: Reflective markers were glued to the forelimb hooves and skin of 26 horses, over palpable landmarks representing centres of the coffin, fetlock and carpal joints, and the dorsal toe at its most distal point. A 4-camera kinematic system recorded the position of these markers as the horse walked in hand across a force platform, to generate a frontal pla...
The use of low doses of acepromazine as an aid for lameness diagnosis in horses: An accelerometric evaluation. The aim of the present study was to quantify by accelerometry the trotting pattern of adult horses sedated with two different doses of acepromazine, in order to assess the use of this drug in equine lameness evaluations. Methods: Seven mature horses were used and three treatments were administered to each horse: saline solution, acepromazine (0.01 mg/kg), and acepromazine (0.02 mg/kg). The portable gait analyzer used consisted of three orthogonal accelerometers that measure accelerations along the dorsoventral, longitudinal, and lateral axes. Baseline values were obtained and after treatment, ...
The equine neck and its function during movement and locomotion. During both locomotion and body movements at stance, the head and neck of the horse are a major craniocaudal and lateral balancing mechanism employing input from the visual, vestibular and proprioceptive systems. The function of the equine neck has recently become the focus of several research groups; this is probably also feeding on an increase of interest in the equine neck in equestrian sports, with a controversial discussion of specific neck positions such as maximum head and neck flexion. The aim of this review is to offer an overview of new findings on the structures and functions of the...
A galloping quadruped model using left-right asymmetry in touchdown angles. Among quadrupedal gaits, the galloping gait has specific characteristics in terms of locomotor behavior. In particular, it shows a left-right asymmetry in gait parameters such as touchdown angle and the relative phase of limb movements. In addition, asymmetric gait parameters show a characteristic dependence on locomotion speed. There are two types of galloping gaits in quadruped animals: the transverse gallop, often observed in horses; and the rotary gallop, often observed in dogs and cheetahs. These two gaits have different footfall sequences. Although these specific characteristics in quadr...
Head and pelvic movement asymmetry during lungeing in horses with symmetrical movement on the straight. Lungeing is commonly used as part of standard lameness examinations in horses. Knowledge of how lungeing influences motion symmetry in sound horses is needed. Objective: The aim of this study was to objectively evaluate the symmetry of vertical head and pelvic motion during lungeing in a large number of horses with symmetric motion during straight line evaluation. Methods: Cross-sectional prospective study. Methods: A pool of 201 riding horses, all functioning well and considered sound by their owners, were evaluated in trot on a straight line and during lungeing to the left and right. From th...
A universal approach to determine footfall timings from kinematics of a single foot marker in hoofed animals. The study of animal movement commonly requires the segmentation of continuous data streams into individual strides. The use of forceplates and foot-mounted accelerometers readily allows the detection of the foot-on and foot-off events that define a stride. However, when relying on optical methods such as motion capture, there is lack of validated robust, universally applicable stride event detection methods. To date, no method has been validated for movement on a circle, while algorithms are commonly specific to front/hind limbs or gait. In this study, we aimed to develop and validate kinemati...
The foot-surface interaction and its impact on musculoskeletal adaptation and injury risk in the horse. The equine limb has evolved for efficient locomotion and high-speed performance, with adaptations of bone, tendon and muscle. However, the system lacks the ability seen in some species to dynamically adapt to different circumstances. The mechanical interaction of the limb and the ground is influenced by internal and external factors including fore-hind mass distribution, lead limb, moving on a curve, shoeing and surface properties. It is unclear which of the components of limb loading have the largest effect on injury and performance but peak load, impact and vibration all play a role. Factors...
Effects of acceleration on gait measures in three horse gaits. Animals switch gaits according to locomotor speed. In terrestrial locomotion, gaits have been defined according to footfall patterns or differences in center of mass (COM) motion, which characterizes mechanisms that are more general and more predictive than footfall patterns. This has generated different variables designed primarily to evaluate steady-speed locomotion, which is easier to standardize in laboratory conditions. However, in the ecology of an animal, steady-state conditions are rare and the ability to accelerate, decelerate and turn is essential. Currently, there are no data availa...
Naturally-occurring forelimb lameness in the horse results in significant compensatory load redistribution during trotting. This study aimed to quantify the compensatory response to naturally-occurring forelimb lameness on load redistribution. Data from lameness investigations using an inertial sensor based system to monitor the response to forelimb diagnostic anaesthesia were reviewed. Horses with primary forelimb lameness were grouped for analysis as (1) all horses combined (n= 28), (2) forelimb-only lameness (n= 8/28), (3) forelimb-contralateral hindlimb lameness (n= 14/28), (4) forelimb-ipsilateral hindlimb lameness (n= 6/28). The effect of diagnostic anaesthesia on measures of head and pelvic movement ...
Differences in rider movement pattern between different degrees of collection at the trot in high-level dressage horses ridden on a treadmill. Collection is a central term in equine dressage, defined as a shortening of the horse's stride length with retained energy and hind limb activity. How collection is induced by the rider has yet not been investigated objectively. The aim of this study was therefore to compare the movement pattern of high-level dressage riders between free trot (loose reins), passage and a range of three speeds in collected trot. Both at higher speed in collected trot and in passage, the rider's pelvis became more caudally rotated and the rider's lumbar back became more flexed. However, in passage there was also...
Functional locomotor consequences of uneven forefeet for trot symmetry in individual riding horses. Left-right symmetrical distal limb conformation can be an important prerequisite for a successful performance, and it is often hypothesized that asymmetric or uneven feet are important enhancing factors for the development of lameness. On a population level, it has been demonstrated that uneven footed horses are retiring earlier from elite level competition, but the biomechanical consequences are not yet known. The objectives of this study were to compare the functional locomotor asymmetries of horses with uneven to those with even feet. Hoof kinetics and distal limb kinematics were collected ...
Rater agreement of visual lameness assessment in horses during lungeing. Lungeing is an important part of lameness examinations as the circular path may accentuate low-grade lameness. Movement asymmetries related to the circular path, to compensatory movements and to pain make the lameness evaluation complex. Scientific studies have shown high inter-rater variation when assessing lameness during straight line movement. Objective: The aim was to estimate inter- and intra-rater agreement of equine veterinarians evaluating lameness from videos of sound and lame horses during lungeing and to investigate the influence of veterinarians' experience and the objective degre...
Foot placement of the equine forelimb: Relationship between foot conformation, foot placement and movement asymmetry. Hoof conformation, foot placement and movement asymmetry are routinely assessed as part of the lameness examination. However, to date, few studies have described these parameters, or the interplay between them, in the general horse population. Objective: To assess foot conformation and foot placement in the forelimbs of a group of general purpose horses and investigate the relationships between foot placement, foot conformation and movement asymmetry. Methods: Observational cross-sectional study. Methods: Forty-three horses were included in the study. Measurements were taken from photographs o...
Lungeing on hard and soft surfaces: Movement symmetry of trotting horses considered sound by their owners. Lungeing is often part of the clinical lameness examination. The difference in movement symmetry, which is a commonly employed lameness measure, has not been quantified between surfaces. Objective: To compare head and pelvic movement symmetry between surfaces and reins during lungeing. Methods: Quantitative gait analysis in 23 horses considered sound by their owners. Methods: Twenty-three horses were assessed in-hand and on the lunge on both reins on hard and soft surfaces with inertial sensors. Seven movement symmetry parameters were quantified and used to establish 2 groups, namely symmetric...
The Effects of Inclination (Up and Down) of the Treadmill on the Electromyogram Activities of the Forelimb and Hind limb Muscles at a Walk and a Trot in Thoroughbred Horses. It is important to know the effects of the inclination of a slope on the activity of each muscle, because training by running on a sloped track is commonly used for Thoroughbred racehorses. The effects of incline (from -6 to +6%) on the forelimbs and hind limbs during walking and trotting on a treadmill were evaluated by an integrated electromyogram (iEMG). The muscle activities in the forelimbs (5 horses) and hind limbs (4 horses) were measured separately. Two stainless steel wires were inserted into each of the brachiocephalicus (Bc), biceps brachii (BB), splenius (Sp), and pectoralis descen...
Human pelvis motions when walking and when riding a therapeutic horse. A prevailing rationale for equine assisted therapies is that the motion of a horse can provide sensory stimulus and movement patterns that mimic those of natural human activities such as walking. The purpose of this study was to quantitatively measure and compare human pelvis motions when walking to those when riding a horse. Six able-bodied children (inexperienced riders, 8-12years old) participated in over-ground trials of self-paced walking and leader-paced riding on four different horses. Five kinematic measures were extracted from three-dimensional pelvis motion data: anteroposterior, sup...
Saving energy during hard times: energetic adaptations of Shetland pony mares. Recent results suggest that wild Northern herbivores reduce their metabolism during times of low ambient temperature and food shortage in order to reduce their energetic needs. It is, however, not known whether domesticated animals are also able to reduce their energy expenditure. We exposed 10 Shetland pony mares to different environmental conditions (summer and winter) and to two food quantities (60% and 100% of maintenance energy requirement) during low winter temperatures to examine energetic and behavioural responses. In summer, ponies showed a considerably higher field metabolic rate (FM...
Posture, flexibility and grip strength in horse riders. Since the ability to train the horse to be ambidextrous is considered highly desirable, rider asymmetry is recognized as a negative trait. Acquired postural and functional asymmetry can originate from numerous anatomical regions, so it is difficult to suggest if any is developed due to riding. The aim of this study was therefore to assess symmetry of posture, strength and flexibility in a large population of riders and to determine whether typical traits exist due to riding. 127 right handed riders from the UK and USA were categorized according to years riding (in 20 year increments) and their...
Frequency dependence of power and its implications for contractile function of muscle fibers from the digital flexors of horses. The digital flexors of horses must produce high force to support the body weight during running, and a need for these muscles to generate power is likely limited during locomotion over level ground. Measurements of power output from horse muscle fibers close to physiological temperatures, and when cyclic strain is imposed, will help to better understand the in vivo performance of the muscles as power absorbers and generators. Skinned fibers from the deep (DDF) and superficial (SDF) digital flexors, and the soleus (SOL) underwent sinusoidal oscillations in length over a range of frequencies (0....
Comparison between the robo-horse and real horse movements for hippotherapy. While the novel robotic hippotherapy system has gradually gained clinical application for therapeutic intervention on postural and locomotor control in individuals with neurological or musculoskeletal impairments, the system's validity and reliability for the robotic hippotherapy system has not been well established. The objective of the current study was to investigate the validity and test-retest reliability of the robotic hippotherapy system by comparing with real horse movements. The 3-axis accelerometer sensors attached on the robotic and real horse saddles were used to collect 3-dimensio...
An accelerometric measure of the gait pattern in horses after the administration of sublingual detomidine. The locomotor pattern alterations produced after the administration of a sublingual detomidine gel was measured by an accelerometric method in horses. Using a randomized two-way crossover design, all animals (n = 6) randomly received either detomidine gel or a placebo administered sublingually. A triaxial accelerometric device was used for gait assessment 15 minutes before (baseline) and every 10 minutes after each treatment for a period of 180 minutes. Eight different parameters were calculated, including speed, stride frequency, stride length, regularity, dorsoventral, propulsion, mediolater...
