The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Rohlf CM, Garcia TC, Fyhrie DP, le Jeune SS, Peterson ML, Stover SM.Mechanical properties of arena surfaces are extrinsic factors for musculoskeletal injury. Vertical impact forces of harrowed and compacted cushion were measured at five locations on 12 arena surfaces (five dirt, seven synthetic [dirt and fiber]). Eight variables related to impact force, displacement, and acceleration were calculated. Surface temperature, cushion depth and moisture content were also measured. The effects of surface material type (dirt/synthetic) and cushion compaction (harrowed/compacted) on vertical impact properties were assessed using an analysis of variance. Relationships o...
Rumpel AS, De Carvalho AL, Vassoler JM, Schmidt ML, Mertz CC, Rozo CAC, Campos JK, Alievi MM. The aim of this study was to compare the biomechanical properties of two minimally invasive arthrodesis techniques of the equine proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint (three transarticular 5.5-mm cortical screws [AO-3TLS] vs. two transarticular 7.0-mm headless cannulated multi-use compression screws [MUC-2TS]) in dynamic non-destructive testing and compression testing to failure. Methods: The experimental study included six pairs of cadaveric adult equine forelimbs; one limb from each horse was randomly assigned to one of the treatments, and the contralateral limb was submitted to the rem...
Gibson MJ, Legg KA, Gee EK, Rogers CW.Race day fatalities as a consequence of catastrophic musculoskeletal injury and cardiac failure are both a welfare concern and provide a challenge for the social perceptions of equine welfare within the racing industry. To reduce race day fatalities, the risk factors under New Zealand racing conditions need to be identified. The aim of this study was to examine race and horse-level risk factors for fatalities in New Zealand Thoroughbred flat racing using retrospective race day data from the 2011/12-2021/22 racing seasons. Horse and race-level factors associated with a suspected cardiac failure...
Davis MS, Barrett MR.Mitochondrial function-oxidative phosphorylation and the generation of reactive oxygen species-is critical in both health and disease. Thus, measuring mitochondrial function is fundamental in biomedical research. Skeletal muscle is a robust source of mitochondria, particularly in animals with a very high aerobic capacity, such as horses, making them ideal subjects for studying mitochondrial physiology. This article demonstrates the use of high-resolution respirometry with concurrent fluorometry, with freshly harvested skeletal muscle mitochondria, to quantify the capacity to oxidize substrates...
Ludwig EK, Hallowell K, Womble M, O'Neil E.A 2-day-old Cleveland Bay colt was referred to the Equine Emergency Service of the Farm Animal and Equine Veterinary Medical Center at North Carolina State University's College of Veterinary Medicine for evaluation of decreased nursing behaviour and right hindlimb lameness of 2 days' duration. When assisted to stand, the foal was unable to extend either hindlimb or bear weight on the hindlimbs, the right patella was luxated laterally and unable to be reduced, and the foal assumed a crouched position. Stifle radiographs revealed minimal, heterogeneous, ill-defined ossification of both patellae....
Trobec T, Žužek MC, Sepčić K, Kladnik J, Turel I, Frangež R.Enzyme butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) shows increased activity in some brain regions after progression of Alzheimer's disease and is therefore one of the therapeutic targets for symptomatic treatment of this neurodegenerative disorder. The organoruthenium(II) complex [(η--cymene)Ru(II)(1-hydroxy-3-methoxypyridine-2(1)-thionato)pta]PF () was designed based on the results of our previous structure-activity studies. Inhibitory activity toward cholinesterase enzymes shows that this complex selectively, competitively, and reversibly inhibits horse serum BChE (hsBChE) with an IC value of 2.88 µM. Wh...
Shaffer SK, Stover SM, Fyhrie DP.Focal bone lesions are often found prior to clinically relevant stress-fractures. Lesions are characterized by low bone volume fraction, low mineral density, and high levels of microdamage and are hypothesized to develop when bone tissue cannot sufficiently respond to damaging loading. It is difficult to determine how exercise drives the formation of these lesions because bone responds to mechanical loading and repairs damage. In this study, we derive steady-state rate constants for a compartment model of bone turnover using morphometric data from fractured and non-fractured racehorse proximal...
Henry ML, Wesolowski LT, Pagan JD, Simons JL, Valberg SJ, White-Springer SH.Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is an essential component of the mitochondrial electron transfer system and a potent antioxidant. The impact of CoQ10 supplementation on mitochondrial capacities and the muscle proteome is largely unknown. This study determined the effect of CoQ10 supplementation on muscle CoQ10 concentrations, antioxidant balance, the proteome, and mitochondrial respiratory capacities. In a randomized cross-over design, six Thoroughbred horses received 1600 mg/d CoQ10 or no supplement (control) for 30-d periods separated by a 60-d washout. Muscle samples were taken at the end of each peri...
Pinto LV, Gouveia FC, Ramalho JF, Silva SR, Silva JR.Horse riding (HR) has gain popularity in Portugal, thereby increasing the number of related injuries. This study identifies frequently occurring injuries in Portuguese riders, the conditions under which they occur, and preventive measures. Methods: A retrospective cohort study. Methods: We included 216 Portuguese riders practicing HR at the time of the study with ≥1 year of experience. Data were obtained from a questionnaire that characterized first and second rider injuries; we opted for a systematic method to assess the riders' injuries, in a temporal order. Questions regarding demographi...
Fjordbakk CT, Marques-Smith P.Interpretation of patellar ligament (PL) ultrasonography may be difficult, as hypoechoic or heterogenous echogenicity are common findings. Verifying suspected disease of equine PLs by histopathology is also problematic as descriptions of normal PL vascularity and histology are scarce. The current study describes the PL and infrapatellar fat pad (IFP) vascular pattern from computed tomography scans of barium perfused normal equine specimens (n = 8; age 10 days to 18 years), as well as routine histology to serve as a reference for future investigations into PL pathology and IFP disease. Re...
de Souza AF, Paretsis NF, De Zoppa ALDV.The aim of this study was to determine the clinical outcomes reported in retrospective studies of proximal interphalangeal arthrodesis (PIA) in horses through a meta-analysis of retrospective studies. CAB Abstracts, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched. The primary outcomes included survival and surgical site infection (SSI) rates, return to activities, and time of hospital stay and casting. Subgroups were formed for fractures and other conditions. Meta-analyses were performed with fixed and random effects models to estimate proportions, mean values, and effect size ...
Cannon JK, Ellis KL.Striations are present on ultrasonography of the intermediate (middle) patellar ligament in the transverse plane, which can be confused with tears. Comparison to the contralateral limb is often performed to help differentiate anatomic variation from pathologic change. The purposes of this prospective, observational study were to describe the striation patterns in Warmbloods and Quarter Horses, determine if these patterns are bilaterally symmetrical, and compare striation characteristics between Warmbloods and Quarter Horses. The intermediate patellar ligaments of six Warmblood horses and six Q...
Fadel C, Giorgi M.According to in vitro and in vivo investigations, firocoxib (FX), a second-generation coxib, is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor in horses. With a COX-1/COX-2 IC50 ratio of 643 in horses, FX spares the COX-1 inhibitory effects. It is approved for the treatment of musculoskeletal problems and lameness in horses and dogs with osteoarthritis (OA). For the treatment of OA in horses, both an injectable formulation for IV administration at a dose of 0.09 mg/kg for five days and an oral paste formulation at a dose of 0.1 mg/kg for 14 days are licensed. Numerous analytical methods were reported in...
De Gasperi D, Guo D, Guo D, Lu Y, Brounts SH.To develop and describe a minimally invasive, ultrasound-guided, percutaneous technique for the desmotomy of equine palmar/plantar annular ligaments (PALs) using a transecting thread. Methods: Ex vivo study. Methods: Twenty-one normal equine distal limb specimens. Methods: Under ultrasonographic guidance, a surgical thread was percutaneously placed around the PAL through 2 skin punctures (proximal and distal) using a 18 gauge spinal needle in equine limbs (11 forelimbs, 10 hindlimbs) with normal PALs. The ligament was transected by a back-and-forth motion of the thread until the loop emerged...
Orr R, Canetti EFD, Pope R, Lockie RG, Dawes JJ, Schram B.Mounted police officers are subject to unique occupational tasks which may lead to unique injuries. This study's aim was to describe policing injuries suffered by mounted police officers contextualized through comparison to non-mounted officers. Injury data from 01 July 2014 to 30 June 2020 were provided from a state policing agency's incident reporting database. The data reported the numbers and rates of injuries and classified the injuries by gender, cause, mechanism, nature, and hours worked. Of the 35,406 reported injuries, 35,255 (99.6%) injuries were reported by non-mounted police office...
Xing J, Qi X, Liu G, Li X, Gao X, Bou G, Bai D, Zhao Y, Du M, Dugarjaviin M, Zhang X.In response to muscle injury, muscle stem cells are stimulated by environmental signals to integrate into damaged tissue to mediate regeneration. L-leucine (L-leu), a branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) that belongs to the essential amino acids (AAs) of the animal, has gained global interest on account of its muscle-building and regenerating effects. The present study was designed to investigate the impact of L-leu exposure to promote the proliferation of equine skeletal muscle satellite cells (SCs) on the regulation of RNA networks, including mRNA, long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), covalently closed...
He H, Palm-Vlasak LS, Chen C, Banks SA, Biedrzycki AH.This study aims to quantitatively characterize the passive kinematics of the healthy, soft tissue-intact equine stifle to establish an objective foundation for providing insights into the etiology of stifle disorders and developing a possible surgical treatment for stifle degenerative disease. Methods: 5 whole-horse specimens. Methods: Reflective markers with intracortical bone pins and a motion capture system were used to investigate the stifle joint kinematics. Kinematics of 5 whole-horse specimens euthanized within 2 hours were calculated for internal/external rotation, adduction/abduction,...
Manfredi JM, Jacob S, Norton E.Endocrine disorders are associated with joint pain and tendon injury in humans, but the effects in the horse are only starting to be understood. Similar patterns of clinical signs and injury appear to affect horses and humans for both orthopedic and endocrine disorders, supporting the use of a one-health approach to tackle these issues. In this Currents in One Health, we will discuss common equine endocrinopathies, current testing recommendations, dietary management, genetic predispositions, and endocrine disorders' effects on performance. Our aim is to use a one-health lens to describe curren...
Manfredi JM, Jacob SI, Boger BL, Norton EM.Endocrinopathies affect multiple species in ever-increasing percentages of their populations, creating an opportunity to apply one-health approaches to determining creative preventative measures and therapies in athletes. Obesity and alterations in insulin and glucose dynamics are medical concerns that play a role in whole-body health and homeostasis in both horses and humans. The role and impact of endocrine disorders on the musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems are of particular interest to the athlete. Elucidation of both physiologic and pathophysiologic mechanisms invol...
Anderson K, Morrice-West AV, Walmsley EA, Fisher AD, Whitton RC, Hitchens PL.Musculoskeletal injuries are observed in Thoroughbred racehorses and may become catastrophic. Currently, there are limited methods for early detection of such injuries. Most injuries develop gradually due to accumulated damage, providing the opportunity for early detection. Horses experiencing pain or lameness may exhibit changes in behaviour so the development of an objective, real-time system monitoring horse behaviour may enable detection of bone injuries before catastrophic failure. Objective: To determine whether intensive observational methods of assessing horse behaviour can be replaced...
Belyaev RI, Kuznetsov AN, Prilepskaya NE.The vertebral column is a hallmark of vertebrates; it is the structural basis of their body and the locomotor apparatus in particular. Locomotion of any vertebrate animal in its typical habitat is directly associated with functional adaptations of its vertebrae. This study is the first large-scale analysis of mobility throughout the presacral region of the vertebral column covering a majority of extant odd-toed ungulates from 6 genera and 15 species. In this study, we used a previously developed osteometry-based method to calculate available range of motion. We quantified all three directions ...
Spoormakers TJP, St George L, Smit IH, Hobbs SJ, Brommer H, Clayton HM, Roy SH, Richards J, Serra Bragança FM.The inter-relationship between equine thoracolumbar motion and muscle activation during normal locomotion and lameness is poorly understood. Objective: To compare thoracolumbar and pelvic kinematics and longissimus dorsi (longissimus) activity of trotting horses between baseline and induced forelimb (iFL) and hindlimb (iHL) lameness. Methods: Controlled experimental cross-over study. Methods: Three-dimensional kinematic data from the thoracolumbar vertebrae and pelvis, and bilateral surface electromyography (sEMG) data from longissimus at T14 and L1, were collected synchronously from clinicall...
Han H, McGivney BA, Allen L, Bai D, Corduff LR, Davaakhuu G, Davaasambuu J, Dorjgotov D, Hall TJ, Hemmings AJ, Holtby AR, Jambal T, Jargalsaikhan B....Selection for system-wide morphological, physiological, and metabolic adaptations has led to extreme athletic phenotypes among geographically diverse horse breeds. Here, we identify genes contributing to exercise adaptation in racehorses by applying genomics approaches for racing performance, an end-point athletic phenotype. Using an integrative genomics strategy to first combine population genomics results with skeletal muscle exercise and training transcriptomic data, followed by whole-genome resequencing of Asian horses, we identify protein-coding variants in genes of interest in galloping ...
Timmerman I, Macaire C, Hanne-Poujade S, Bertoni L, Martin P, Marin F, Chateau H.Repeatability and reproducibility of any measuring system must be evaluated to assess possible limitations for its use. The objective of this study was to establish the repeatability and the inter-operator reproducibility of a sensors-based system (EQUISYM®) for quantifying gait asymmetries in horses.. Seven wireless IMUs were placed on the head, the withers, the pelvis, and the 4 cannon bones on three horses, by four different operators, four times on each horse, which led to a total of 48 repetitions randomly assigned. Data were collected along three consecutive days and analysed to calcula...
Rooney MF, Neto NGB, Monaghan MG, Hill EW, Porter RK.Thoroughbred racehorse performance is largely influenced by a major quantitative trait locus at the () gene which determines aptitude for certain race distances due to a promoter region insertion mutation influencing functional phenotypes in skeletal muscle. To develop an system for functional experiments we established three novel equine skeletal muscle cell lines reflecting the variation in phenotype associated with genotype (CC/II, CT/IN and TT/NN for SNP g.66493737C > T/SINE insertion 227 bp polymorphism). Primary equine skeletal muscle myoblasts, isolated from Thoroughbred horse , we...
Vinardell T, David F, Galezowski AM, Ali M, Qasim M, Massie SL, McCrae P, Filho S, Leguillette R.Swimming is used for rehabilitation of musculoskeletal injuries and for conditioning to improve equine fitness. However, there are anecdotal reports that suggest that tethered swimming can induce epistaxis, likely secondary to exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH). The objective of this observational, prospective study was to investigate if EIPH occurs during intensive free-swimming training sessions (5 × 70m) using 15 endurance horses. On tracheo-bronchoscopic evaluations following swimming, low grade mucus scores were observed, but no tracheal blood was observed. Bronchoalveolar la...
Riders’ asymmetry may cause back pain in both human and equine athletes. This pilot study aimed at documenting in a simple and quick way asymmetry in riders during a simulation of three different riding positions on wooden horseback using load cells applied on the stirrup leathers and identifying possible associations between riders’ asymmetry and their gender, age, level of riding ability, years of riding experience, riding style, motivation of riding, primary discipline and handedness. After completing an interview to obtain the previously mentioned information, 147 riders performed a st...
Sharp Y, Tabor G.Links between poor hind hoof balance, pathologies in the hind limb and associated altered posture have been suggested but not quantified. The hoof is proposed as a neuro-sensory organ responsible for informing equine stance with implications for musculoskeletal health in the hind limb and trunk of the horse. This study aims to quantify equine limb posture and its relationship with hoof balance. Twelve horses presenting with negative plantar angles were photographed and limb posture documented before and after the creation of positive plantar angles and improved three-dimensional proportions ar...
Georgopoulos SP, Parkin TD.The aim of this paper is to identify risk factors associated with equine fractures in flat horse racing of Thoroughbreds in North America. Equine fractures were defined as any fracture sustained by a horse during a race. This was a cohort study that made use of all starts from the racecourses reporting injuries. The analysis was based on 2,201,152 racing starts that represent 91% of all official racing starts in the USA and Canada from 1st January 2009-31st December 2014. Approximately 3,990,000 workout starts made by the 171,523 Thoroughbreds that raced during that period were also included i...
Boyde A, Haroon Y, Jones SJ, Riggs CM.This study examined the three-dimensional (3D) microarchitecture of regions of the equine third metacarpal bone (McIII) commonly involved in distal condylar fractures. Limbs were obtained from Thoroughbred horses (neonates to age 24 years) destroyed for inoperable fractures and a variety of other conditions. Beams, blocks and sections were cut in the principal axes, some embedded in PMMA and others examined unembedded. Several methods were used to study the 3D structure, including conventional and confocal optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and radiography. The mineralised ...
Branly T, Contentin R, Desancé M, Jacquel T, Bertoni L, Jacquet S, Mallein-Gerin F, Denoix JM, Audigié F, Demoor M, Galéra P.Articular cartilage is a tissue characterized by its poor intrinsic capacity for self-repair. This tissue is frequently altered upon trauma or in osteoarthritis (OA), a degenerative disease that is currently incurable. Similar musculoskeletal disorders also affect horses and OA incurs considerable economic loss for the equine sector. In the view to develop new therapies for humans and horses, significant progress in tissue engineering has led to the emergence of new generations of cartilage therapy. Matrix-associated autologous chondrocyte implantation is an advanced 3D cell-based therapy that...
Ginés-Díaz A, Martínez-Romero MT, Cejudo A, Aparicio-Sarmiento A, Sainz de Baranda P.Previous research has analyzed how the sport influences sagittal spinal curvatures in young athletes and has found that spinal curves may be modified as a consequence of repeated movement patterns and postures of each discipline. Objective: To analyze sagittal spinal alignment by equestrian discipline and its relation to training load, and to describe "sagittal integrative morphotype" in young riders. Methods: Observational descriptive study. Methods: Training room. Methods: A total of 23 riders (aged 9-17 y)-13 dressage riders (3 males and 10 females) and 10 show jumping riders (5 males and ...
Firth EC, Rogers CW, van Weeren PR, Barneveld A, McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE, Goodship AE, Smith RK.This study recorded the response to training of the diaphysis of the proximal phalangeal bone and the third metacarpal bone (Mc3) and the Mc3 proximal metaphysis. Nineteen 2- and 3-year old horses in training were exposed either to spontaneous exercise at pasture (PASTEX group) or additional imposed exercise (CONDEX group) from a very young age. Quantitative computed tomography scans were analysed for bone mineral content, size, bone mineral density, periosteal and endosteal circumference, cortical thickness and an estimate of bone strength. The bones of the CONDEX horses were bigger and stron...
van Weeren PR, de Grauw JC.This article focuses on pain associated with osteoarthritis (OA). It first describes the basic biology of articular cartilage and other joint structures and the defining features of the osteoarthritic disease process. Subsequently, the possible origins of pain in OA are discussed before embarking on how to manage this clinical entity. The emphasis is on the pharmacologic management of joint pain, and attention is paid to systemic therapeutic strategies as well as to local (intra-articular) treatment modalities. Nonmedical ways of modulating joint pain are briefly mentioned, but not extensively...
Alves AG, Stewart AA, Dudhia J, Kasashima Y, Goodship AE, Smith RK.Tendon and ligament injuries have proved difficult to treat effectively. Cell-based therapies offer the potential to harness the complex protein synthetic machinery of the cell to induce a regenerative response rather than fibrous scarring. This article reviews the current state of play with respect to the clinically used cell preparations for the treatment of tendon and ligaments overstrain injuries.
Barrachina L, Romero A, Zaragoza P, Rodellar C, Vázquez FJ.Since the clinical use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for treating musculoskeletal injuries is gaining popularity, practitioners should be aware of the factors that may affect MSCs from tissue harvesting for MSC isolation to cell delivery into the injury site. This review provides equine practitioners with up-to-date, practical knowledge for the treatment of equine patients using MSCs. A brief overview of laboratory procedures affecting MSCs is provided, but the main focus is on shipping conditions, routes of administration, injection methods, and which commonly used products can be combined...
Rafati N, Andersson LS, Mikko S, Feng C, Raudsepp T, Pettersson J, Janecka J, Wattle O, Ameur A, Thyreen G, Eberth J, Huddleston J, Malig M, Bailey E....Skeletal atavism in Shetland ponies is a heritable disorder characterized by abnormal growth of the ulna and fibula that extend the carpal and tarsal joints, respectively. This causes abnormal skeletal structure and impaired movements, and affected foals are usually killed. In order to identify the causal mutation we subjected six confirmed Swedish cases and a DNA pool consisting of 21 control individuals to whole genome resequencing. We screened for polymorphisms where the cases and the control pool were fixed for opposite alleles and observed this signature for only 25 SNPs, most of which we...
Vallance SA, Entwistle RC, Hitchens PL, Gardner IA, Stover SM.Identification of exercise history patterns that are related to catastrophic scapular fracture will facilitate prevention of racehorse fatalities. Objective: To determine if exercise patterns are associated with scapular fracture in Thoroughbred (TB) and Quarter Horse (QH) racehorses. Methods: High-speed exercise histories for 65 TB and 26 QH racehorses that had a complete scapular fracture (cases) and 2 matched control racehorses were retrospectively studied. Exercise variables were created from lifetime race and official timed workout reports. Associations between exercise variables and scap...
Kane AJ, Park RD, McIlwraith CW, Rantanen NW, Morehead JP, Bramlage LR.Radiography in presale examinations of TB yearlings has become standard practice in recent years. Objective: To describe the prevalence and distribution of radiographic changes in the fetlocks, carpi, tarsi, stifles and fore feet of Thoroughbred yearlings in central Kentucky when these joints were examined as part of routine pre- and post sale evaluations. Methods: Horses subjected to radiographs included the fore (n = 1127) and hind (n = 1102) fetlocks, carpi (n = 1130), tarsi (n = 1101), stifles (n = 660) and fore feet (n = 300). Radiographic changes were categorised by location and type of ...
Kim H, Lee T, Park W, Lee JW, Kim J, Lee BY, Ahn H, Moon S, Cho S, Do KT, Kim HS, Lee HK, Lee CK, Kong HS, Yang YM, Park J, Kim HM, Kim BC, Hwang S....The modern horse (Equus caballus) is the product of over 50 million yrs of evolution. The athletic abilities of the horse have been enhanced during the past 6000 yrs under domestication. Therefore, the horse serves as a valuable model to understand the physiology and molecular mechanisms of adaptive responses to exercise. The structure and function of skeletal muscle show remarkable plasticity to the physical and metabolic challenges following exercise. Here, we reveal an evolutionary layer of responsiveness to exercise-stress in the skeletal muscle of the racing horse. We analysed differentia...
Moleman M, van Heel MC, van Weeren PR, Back W.There is little insight into the effects of routine farriery on the internal structures of the distal limb in sound horses. Objective: To measure the effect of change in hoof conformation during a shoeing interval on the moments about the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints (PIPJ, DIPJ) and to determine whether and how the horse compensates for this change in hoof conformation. Methods: Both front feet of 9 sound Warmblood horses were measured while standing on a pressure-force measuring system and radiographed in a lateromedial direction shortly after shoeing and 8 weeks later. From th...
Thorpe CT, Stark RJ, Goodship AE, Birch HL.Damage to the flexor tendons, particularly the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), is one of the most common musculoskeletal injuries sustained by horses competing in all disciplines. Our previous work has shown that SDFTs from different individuals show a wide variation in mechanical strengths; this is important clinically as it may relate to predisposition to injury. The high mechanical strength of tendon relies on the correct orientation of collagen molecules within fibrils and stabilisation by the formation of chemical cross-links between collagen molecules. It is not known whether t...
Brown NA, Pandy MG, Buford WL, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW.To determine whether muscle moment arms at the carpal and metacarpophalangeal joints can be modeled as fixed-radius pulleys for the range of motion associated with the stance phase of the gait in equine forelimbs. Methods: 4 cadaveric forelimbs from 2 healthy Thoroughbreds. Methods: Thin wire cables were sutured at the musculotendinous junction of 9 forelimb muscles. The cables passed through eyelets at each muscle's origin, wrapped around single-turn potentiometers, and were loaded. Tendon excursions, measured as the changes in lengths of the cables, were recorded during manual rotation of th...
Anderson TM, McIlwraith CW, Douay P.The relationship of conformation to future potential injury is a standard approach in practise but, at present, is largely based on subjective observations. Objective: To measure conformation in 3-year-old Thoroughbreds and objectively test its relationship with the occurrence of musculoskeletal problems. Methods: Conformation measurements were taken from photographs using specific reference points marked on the horses and processed on the computer. Clinical observations were recorded for each horse on a regular basis. Stepwise (forward) logistic regression analysis was performed to investigat...
Riemersma DJ, van den Bogert AJ, Jansen MO, Schamhardt HC.Strains in the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT), accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor muscle (inferior check ligament [ICL]) and the interosseus medius muscle (suspensory ligament [SL]) in the right forelimb of 5 ponies were measured using mercury-in-silastic strain gauges a few hours after implantation. Tendon strains were recorded at the walk with normal flat shoes, egg-bar shoes, a 7 degrees increased hoof angle accomplished by application of a heel-wedge and a 7 degrees decreased hoof angle using a toe-wedge, consecutively. Ground reactio...
Bouwman FG, van Ginneken MM, Noben JP, Royackers E, de Graaf-Roelfsema E, Wijnberg ID, van der Kolk JH, Mariman EC, van Breda E.The major aim of the present study was to investigate the proteome of standardbred horses at different stages of training and intensified training. We searched for biomarkers using small skeletal muscle biopsies of live animals. 2D gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry were successfully applied to investigate training-induced differential expression of equine muscle biopsy proteins. Despite the poor resolution of the equine genome and proteome, we were able to identify the proteins of 20 differential spots representing 16 different proteins. Evaluation of those proteins complies with adapt...
Bertuglia A, Bullone M, Rossotto F, Gasparini M.There is a substantial paucity of studies concerning musculoskeletal injuries in harness Standardbred racehorses. Specifically, little is known about the epidemiology of exercise-related musculoskeletal injuries. Most studies on this subject involve Thoroughbred racehorses, whose biomechanics and racing speed differ from Standardbred, making comparisons difficult. Here, a population of Standardbred racehorses trained at the same racecourse was studied over four years and a classification system for exercise-related musculoskeletal injuries was designed. The incidence rates of musculoskeletal i...
McCutcheon LJ, Geor RJ, Hinchcliff KW.The effect of warm-up exercise on energy metabolism and muscle glycogenolysis during sprint exercise (Spr) was examined in six fit Standardbred horses exercised at 115% of maximal O(2) consumption (VO(2 max)) until fatigued, 5 min after each of three protocols: 1) no warm-up (NWU); 2) 10 min at 50% of VO(2 max) [low-intensity warm-up (LWU)]; and 3) 7 min at 50% VO(2 max) followed by 45-s intervals at 80, 90, and 100% VO(2 max) [high-intensity warm-up (HWU)]. Warm-up increased (P < 0.0001) muscle temperature (T(m)) at the onset of Spr in LWU (38.3 +/- 0.2 degrees C) and HWU (40.0 +/- 0. 3 de...
Zsoldos RR, Kotschwar AB, Kotschwar A, Groesel M, Licka T, Peham C.Skeletal muscle activity can be concentric or eccentric, anisometric or isometric and correlation of the equine splenius muscle activity with the movement of its effector joints at walk and trot has not yet been fully characterised. Objective: Investigating activity of the splenius muscle together with kinematics of head and cranial neck at walk and trot. Methods: Kinematics and surface electromyography were measured in 6 horses (8-20-years-old, 450-700 kg) without signs of neck pain. Markers were placed on left and right crista facialis, and on left and right cervical vertebrae 1 and 3. Head ...
Williams SH, Vinyard CJ, Wall CE, Hylander WL.We investigated patterns of jaw-muscle coordination during rhythmic mastication in three species of ungulates displaying the marked transverse jaw movements typical of many large mammalian herbivores. In order to quantify consistent motor patterns during chewing, electromyograms were recorded from the superficial masseter, deep masseter, posterior temporalis and medial pterygoid muscles of goats, alpacas and horses. Timing differences between muscle pairs were evaluated in the context of an evolutionary model of jaw-muscle function. In this model, the closing and food reduction phases of masti...
Oinas J, Ronkainen AP, Rieppo L, Finnilä MAJ, Iivarinen JT, van Weeren PR, Helminen HJ, Brama PAJ, Korhonen RK, Saarakkala S.Articular cartilage undergoes structural and biochemical changes during maturation, but the knowledge on how these changes relate to articular cartilage function at different stages of maturation is lacking. Equine articular cartilage samples of four different maturation levels (newborn, 5-month-old, 11-month-old and adult) were collected (N = 25). Biomechanical tensile testing, Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy (FTIR-MS) and polarized light microscopy were used to study the tensile, biochemical and structural properties of articular cartilage, respectively. The tensile modulus ...
Wylie CE, McManus P, McDonald C, Jorgensen S, McGreevy P.Monitoring racehorse fatality and associated jockey falls provides benchmarks for intervention strategies. The aims of this study were to describe the incidence of and reasons for fatalities in Thoroughbred horses during flat races in the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales (NSW), Australia, and to describe reported jockey falls and injuries associated with racehorse fatalities. A cohort study identified all racehorse fatalities reported through Racing NSW for the 2009-2010 to 2013-2014 racing seasons. Risks of racehorse fatality, fatal musculoskeletal injury, spontaneous death (a...
Evans JH, Barbenel JC.Tendon normally fulfills its primary role as a flexible force transmitting element very effectively and yet failure of this passive tissue leads to great disability. As a connective tissue its structure is relatively simple and the peculiar helical arrangement of collagen fibres confers highly non-linear as well as time-dependent mechanical properties. Functional significance cannot be attributed to any facet of mechanical response until the physiological pattern of loading is established. In particular the rate of deformation and the minimum force experienced by tendon in normal locomotion ha...
Hodson E, Clayton HM, Lanovaz JL.Video (60 Hz) and force (2000 Hz) data were collected from 5 sound horses during walking. Forelimb data were analysed for 8 strides (4 left, 4 right) per horse to determine sagittal plane kinematics and ground reaction forces (GRFs). The results suggested that brachial rotation was responsible for protraction and retraction of the limb as a whole, while rotations of the scapula and antebrachium elevated the distal limb during breakover and early swing then lowered it in preparation for ground contact. The coffin joint was flexed maximally at the time of peak longitudinal braking force, which o...
Waller AP, Geor RJ, Spriet LL, Heigenhauser GJ, Lindinger MI.Oral acetate supplementation enhances glycogen synthesis in some mammals. However, while acetate is a significant energy source for skeletal muscle at rest in horses, its effects on glycogen resynthesis are unknown. We hypothesized that administration of an oral sodium acetate-acetic acid solution with a typical grain and hay meal after glycogen-depleting exercise would result in a rapid appearance of acetate in blood with rapid uptake by skeletal muscle. It was further hypothesized that acetate taken up by muscle would be converted to acetyl CoA (and acetylcarnitine), which would be metaboliz...
Billinghurst RC, Brama PA, van Weeren PR, Knowlton MS, McIlwraith CW.To identify metabolic biomarkers that can be evaluated in serum for monitoring the effects of exercise on skeletal development in mammals. Methods: Sera of foals from three groups (box-stall rest, pasture and training) were serially collected over the first 5 months of life and assayed for eight biomarkers of cartilage and bone metabolism. Sub-populations from each group were sampled for an additional 6 months of identical exercise. Results: When expressed as a percentage of baseline values, lower serum levels of the carboxy-terminal propeptides of type II collagen (CPII), and higher serum lev...
Clayton HM, Schamhardt HC, Willemen MA, Lanovaz JL, Colborne GR.To measure and correlate kinematic and ground reaction force (GRF) data in horses with superficial digital flexor tendinitis. Methods: 6 sound horses. Methods: Horses were evaluated before (sound evaluation) and after (lame evaluation) induction of superficial digital flexor tendinitis in 1 forelimb (randomized) by injection of collagenase. As each horse trotted, kinematic data were collected by use of an optoelectronic system, and GRF data were measured by use of a force plate. Three-dimensional kinematic and GRF data were projected onto a 2-dimensional sagittal plane. Results: Lame limbs had...
Wilson A, Agass R, Vaux S, Sherlock E, Day P, Pfau T, Weller R.Hoof conformation, foot placement and movement asymmetry are routinely assessed as part of the lameness examination. However, to date, few studies have described these parameters, or the interplay between them, in the general horse population. Objective: To assess foot conformation and foot placement in the forelimbs of a group of general purpose horses and investigate the relationships between foot placement, foot conformation and movement asymmetry. Methods: Observational cross-sectional study. Methods: Forty-three horses were included in the study. Measurements were taken from photographs o...
