Orthopedics in horses involves the study and treatment of disorders affecting the musculoskeletal system, including bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, and muscles. This field addresses a range of conditions, from developmental disorders and degenerative diseases to traumatic injuries. Common orthopedic issues in horses include fractures, osteoarthritis, tendonitis, and ligament injuries. Diagnostic techniques such as radiography, ultrasonography, and MRI are employed to assess these conditions. Treatment options may include surgical intervention, physical therapy, and pharmacological management. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the diagnosis, treatment, and management of orthopedic conditions in equine patients.
Yovich JV, McIlwraith CW.Arthroscopic surgery for osteochondral fractures of the proximal phalanx was performed on 74 fetlock joints of 63 horses for a total of 87 fractures during a 2-year period. The medial dorsal proximal aspect of the proximal phalanx of the forelimbs was most commonly involved (59 fractures), followed by the lateral aspect (26 fractures), and 2 fractures occurred in the fetlock joint of the right hindlimb. At surgery, 82 fragments were removed and 5 fragments that had healed or were embedded in the joint capsule were not removed. Of the fragments removed, 15 were fixed firmly to the proximal phal...
Bertone AL, Turner AS, Park RD.Correction was attempted in 27 foals (41 limbs) with angular deformities at the carpal region (35 limbs), metatarsophalangeal region (5 limbs) and distal end of the tibia (1 limb) by hemicircumferential transection of the periosteum (HCTP) and periosteal stripping (PS). Successful outcome was determined by straight limbs and soundness, which was achieved in 81.5% of the cases, with 60% of the horses in performance training. Follow-up evaluation for all foals was completed at various times after physiologic closure of the physes. In none of the limbs was the deformity overcorrected. Owners of f...
Bertone AL, Park RD, Turner AS.Radiographs of 23 foals (35 forelimbs) with carpal region angular limb deformities, which later were corrected by hemicircumferential transection of the periosteum and periosteal stripping, were evaluated as to geometric and morphologic abnormalities. Geometric evaluation included deviation angle and deviation pivot point. Morphologic abnormalities were categorized as: asymmetric width of the distal radial physis; asymmetric width of the distal radial epiphysis; carpal bone collapse or fracture; carpal bone hypoplasia; carpal bone displacement; and metacarpal bone displacement. Fifty-seven per...
Bowman KF, Leitch M, Nunamaker DM, Fackelman GE, Tate LP, Park MI, Boles CL, Raker CW.A total of 19 Thoroughbred horses were treated for traumatic disruption of the suspensory apparatus, using either external support of the injured limb, removal of fractured proximal sesamoid bone fragments, metacarpophalangeal arthrodesis, compression screw fixation of the fractured proximal sesamoid bones, application of a cast-brace attached to a transfixation pin inserted through the third metacarpal bone, or combinations thereof. Major complications during the treatment of traumatic disruption of the suspensory apparatus were infection (9 of 19 horses, 47%), large cast sores (10 of 14 trea...
McIlwraith CW.This paper reviews the current status of diagnostic and surgical arthroscopy in the horse. Arthroscopy has been used as a diagnostic aid since 1974 and is useful for evaluation of abnormalities in synovial membrane and articular cartilage. Surgical arthroscopy is a more recent advance that has replaced conventional arthrotomy in 90 per cent of the author's cases. Clinical conditions currently being treated using arthroscopic techniques rather than arthrotomy include all chip fractures in the carpus, chip fractures of the first phalanx, chronic proliferative synovitis in the fetlock and osteoch...
Fretz PB, Donecker JM.The outcome of surgical treatment of angular limb deformities in 29 foals was evaluated through long-term monitoring of athletic performance. Foals were placed into 1 of 2 groups, depending on the site of the angular limb deformity. In group 1 foals, the deformity involved the carpus of distal end of the radius. In group 2 foals, the deformity involved the distal end of the 3rd metacarpal or metatarsal bone. Group 1 contained 20 foals and group 2 contained 11 foals. Two foals were in both groups. Sixteen foals in group 1 and 4 foals in group 2 progressed to some form of athletic use. The under...
Fretz PB, McIlwraith CW.Five young horses with fetlock varus deformities of 8 degrees or greater were treated by means of wedge osteotomy of the distal end of the 3rd metacarpal or metatarsal bone. Three patients were admitted to the Western College of Veterinary Medicine and 2 to Colorado State University. Their selection as surgical patients was based on the following criteria: (1) an angular limb deformity of 8 degrees or greater, (2) patient older than 120 days, (3) no evidence of lameness, and (4) no evidence of degenerative joint disease. The surgery was successful in all cases.
Auer JA, Martens RJ, Williams EH.Seventeen foals with angular limb deformities of the distal end of the radius (valgus: 26 limbs), distal end of the tibia (valgus: 6 limbs), and distal end of the 3rd metacarpal bone/metatarsal bone (varus: 4 limbs) were treated surgically by means of hemicircumferential division of the periosteum proximal to the involved growth plate, at the concave side of the bone. There was some correction in all cases. The best results were seen in the radius, where 22 of 25 limbs were corrected to a deviation of 4 degrees or less. Satisfactory correction was obtained in the 6 tibias, the 2 third metacarp...
White NA, Blackwell RB, Hoffman PE.Salter-Harris type II proximal tibial fractures were repaired in two 1-month-old foals, using a dynamic compression plate. The plate was placed on the medial aspect of the tibia, and a single cancellous bone screw was used to reduce the proximal fragment displacement. The plate provided fixation during healing and functioned as a transphyseal bridge, which induced a disparity in growth and corrected a slight lateral angulation of the limb. Limb growth after plate removal was normal.
Ford EJ, Adam SE.In the horse, 5'-nucleotidase (5'-NT) activity is found mainly in homogenates of lung, kidney, small intestine, mammary gland, liver and pancreas. Lower activities are present in brain and muscle. Activity can be demonstrated histochemically in the glomeruli and tubules of the kidney, in the sinusoidal borders of the hepatocytes and the bile duct epithelium as well as in the blood vessels of all organs. There is no significant difference between the 5'-NT activity in serum and plasma of normal horses and of horses suffering from a range of orthopaedic conditions. Previous findings that gamma g...
Fackelman GE, von Rechenberg B, Fetter AW.The need for early postoperative weight bearing following fracture repair in the horse has led to investigation of various means of expediting the healing process. Bone grafting represents one means of accomplishing this, and the transplantation of autologous tissues has proven to be most useful in equine orthopedics. Acid-decalcified, frozen, allogeneic bone for grafting is easy to prepare, readily contoured, osteogenic, and elicits no obvious immune or rejection response. The most compelling reason for the use of the substance is the elimination of the need of a harvesting operation on a pat...
Edwards GB, Jones DG.The use of a thermoplastic linear polyester polymer orthopaedic tape in the treatment of six horses, one donkey and a bull with a variety of orthopaedic problems requiring immobilisation of a limb is described.
Vaughan LC.Local disorders of bone growth form an important group of the orthopaedic problems that occur in foals. The recognition of the condition presented is essential so that the appropriate corrective measures may be instituted, and an accurate prognostication made. A knowledge of the applied anatomy of the growth plate is essential to the understanding of these cases. Consideration is given to epiphyseal separation and to angular deformity, from the point of view of diagnosis, prognosis and treatment.
Norrie RD.The concept of regenerative healing has been used to manipulate the healing process in experimental animals and clinically to augment bone healing in people after orthopedic operation. An implanted electrical device was used in an attempt to produce regenerative healing in experimentally created equine tendon injury. The bimetallic electrical implant did not produce regenerative healing under the conditions of this experiment. The mechanism of implantation and discussion of the results are included.
Keller SA, Valet S, Martens A, Weisse B, Fürst AE, Kümmerle JM. The aim of this study was to evaluate cyclic fatigue behaviour of a new pin with a thread run-out design in comparison with three other types of pins commonly used for equine transfixation pin casting. Methods: Twenty-four pairs of equine cadaveric third metacarpal bones (MC3) equipped with one transfixation pin placed horizontally in the distal metaphysis were tested using a simplified model, mimicking the biomechanical situation of equine transfixation pin casting. A 6.3/8.0-mm Imex Duraface pin with thread run-out design (ITROP) was compared with a 6.1-mm smooth Steinmann pin (SSP), a...
Byron CR, Benson BM, Karlin WM, Stewart AA.To report the use of a proximolateral endoscopic portal with a distolateral instrument portal for carpal retinaculum release in a horse clinically affected with carpal canal syndrome. Methods: Clinical report. Methods: A 4-year-old Thoroughbred female. Methods: Carpal canal syndrome secondary to traumatic suppurative tenosynovitis was treated by accessory carpal bone debridement and carpal retinaculum release using a tenoscopic approach to the carpal flexor synovial sheath through a proximolateral endoscope portal and a distolateral instrument portal. Results: Resolution of carpal sheath effus...
Lang JJ, Li X, Micheler CM, Wilhelm NJ, Seidl F, Schwaiger BJ, Barnewitz D, von Eisenhart-Rothe R, Grosse CU, Burgkart R.Femoral fractures are often considered lethal for adult horses because femur osteosynthesis is still a surgical challenge. For equine femur osteosynthesis, primary stability is essential, but the detailed physiological forces occurring in the hindlimb are largely unknown. The objective of this study was to create a numerical testing environment to evaluate equine femur osteosynthesis based on physiological conditions. The study was designed as a finite element analysis (FEA) of the femur using a musculoskeletal model of the loading situation in stance. Relevant forces were determined in the mu...
Bertelsen L.A Quarter horse filly was evaluated for a two-week old wound of the right hind cannon bone after the mare stepped on her. A sequestrum was noted radiographically and was surgically debrided. After continued follow-up a left hind varus deformity was noted and was corrected with a lateral transphyseal screw in the distal left tibia. After the varus deformity was improved, a lateromedial radiograph was taken of the distal left tibia and tarsus and talocalcaneal subluxation was seen. The same view was taken of the right tarsus and the same deformity was noted. After finding no case reports on the ...
Henderson CS, Story MR, Nout-Lomas YS.To determine reasons for horses to have neck radiographs performed, the incidence of transposition of the ventral lamina of C6 onto C7 (TC67), and the final diagnoses for all horses. Our hypotheses were to find a similar incidence of TC67, as has been previously reported, and an increased incidence of neck pain and dysfunction in horses with TC67. Methods: 135 horses. Methods: Retrospective observational study. Medical records of 135 horses with cervical vertebral column radiographs between 2020 and 2022 were assessed. Patient signalment, reasons for radiographs, radiographic findings, and dia...
de Souza AF, Pereira CAM, Costa C, Fürst A, Kümmerle JM, De Zoppa ALV. The aim of this study was to measure the mechanical properties and failure mode of an model of proximal interphalangeal arthrodesis in horses with different methods of proximal screw fixation using a locking compression plate. Methods: Pastern joint arthrodesis with a 3-hole 4.5-mm narrow locking compression plate was performed on 20 forelimbs of equine cadavers, randomized into four groups based on the fixation method and type of proximal screw used: unicortical cortex, bicortical cortex, unicortical locking, bicortical locking. Single-cycle axial compression testing was conducted unti...
Poochipakorn C, Sanigavatee K, Wonghanchao T, Huangsaksri O, Chanda M.Underrun heels are among the most hoof imbalances, causing poor performance in hoses. Several corrective shoeing protocols have been performed, but the outcomes have yet to be consistent. In this study, we proposed an alternative trimming protocol for managing underrun heels: strategic palmar trimming before conventional shoeing. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the potential of strategic palmar trimming before conventional shoeing for managing hoof imbalance in horses with underrun heels. Unassigned: Eleven affected horses were divided into control (5 horses with 14 defective...
Dyson S, Phillips K, Zheng S, Aleman M.There is controversy about the clinical relevance of congenital variants of the ventral laminae of the sixth (C6) and seventh (C7) cervical vertebrae and their relationship with other radiological abnormalities. Objective: To document the prevalence of congenital variants of C6 and C7 and that of other radiological abnormalities from C6 to the second thoracic vertebra (T2). Methods: Cross-sectional. Methods: The study included Warmblood horses ≥3 years of age undergoing clinical assessment at two referral institutions: 127 control horses and 96 cases (neurologic, neck pain or stiffness, or...
Beldeanu S, Tay MCA, Daniel C, Dosi MCM, Hahn CN, James O, Townsend NB, Liuti T, Schwarz T, Parkinson NJ.Fractures of the paracondylar process of the occipital bone may cause headshaking, neck pain and neurologic deficits. The condition is being recognised more frequently with increasing availability of computed tomography. However, to date only limited information is available as to presentation, treatment, surgical approach and outcome. Objective: To describe the clinical signs, imaging findings, treatment, surgical approach and outcome in three horses diagnosed with paracondylar process fracture. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Clinical records and diagnostic images of affected ca...
de Souza AF, Pereira CAM, Fürst A, Kümmerle JM, De Zoppa ALDV.The implantation of unicortical cortex screws in the proximal hole of locking compression plates (LCP) has been recommended for proximal interphalangeal (PIP) arthrodesis in horses to prevent fractures resulting from stress risers in the proximal phalanx (P1). However, this cortex screw fixation technique may limit efficient dorsal compression of the PIP joint by the plate, potentially affecting the stability of the construct. In this study, we aimed to measure stress and strain in P1 and the plate using an ex vivo model of PIP arthrodesis in horses. We employed various implantation methods an...
Pudert T, Fries GF, Lotz H, Röcken M, Cruz AM.To assess the use of a newly developed aiming compression device (ACD) for screw insertion in non-fractured navicular bones (NB) in cadavers. Methods: Cadaveric study. Methods: A total of 10 cadaveric front limbs of adult horses. Methods: Placement of a 3.5 mm cortical screw in non-fractured NB under radiographic guidance was performed in 10 cadaver limbs in a standing position. An ACD was used to stabilize the NB and to guide the drilling process. Preparation and surgical time as well as the number of radiographic images were noted. A postoperative scoring system was used to assess screw pl...
Dyson S, Quiney L, Phillips K, Zheng S, Aleman M.Radiological observations at the cervicothoracic junction in horses with or without related clinical signs have not been comprehensively described. The aim was to evaluate the seventh cervical (C7) to second thoracic (T2) vertebrae in horses with neck-related clinical signs (neck pain and/or stiffness, neck-related forelimb lameness, or general proprioceptive [spinal] ataxia) and control horses. This prospective analytical cross-sectional study included 127 control horses and 96 cases, examined using standardized clinical and radiological protocols. Univariable logistic regression was used to ...
Carmona JU, Carmona-Ramírez LH, López C.(1) Background: There is increasing interest in the use of platelet-rich plasma and related orthobiologics for the treatment of chronic musculoskeletal disorders in horses; however, there is no information on the bibliometric impact of the literature published in this area. (2) Methods: A bibliometric analysis was performed using the bibliometrix R package by analyzing the documents registered in the WOS and Scopus databases from 2000 to 2024. The included registers were evaluated according to the menu of results from the biblioshiny web app (overview, sources, authors, documents, words, trend...
Spriet M, Vandenberghe F.Scintigraphy and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) are both nuclear medicine imaging techniques, providing functional information of the imaged areas. Scintigraphy is a two-dimensional projected imaging technique that was introduced in equine imaging in the late 1970s. Scintigraphy allows imaging of large body parts and can cover multiple areas, remaining the only technique commonly used in horses for whole body imaging. PET is a cross-sectional imaging technique, first used in horses in 2015, allowing higher resolution three-dimensional functional imaging of the equine distal limb. This manu...
de Preux M, Precht C, Travaglini AT, Propadalo LM, Farra D, Vidondo B, Easley JT, Koch C.To determine the effect of the Vertek aiming device (VAD) on the surgical accuracy of navigated drilling of the distal sesamoid bone (DSB). Methods: Experimental cadaveric study. Methods: A total of 30 paired equine cadaveric limbs from 15 horses. Methods: Each specimen was placed in a purpose-built frame (PBF). Preoperative cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) images were acquired with an imaging unit coupled with a surgical navigation system. In the DSB of each specimen, a 4.5 mm glide hole and a 3.2 mm thread hole were drilled under navigation guidance, to simulate drilling for the repa...
Argue BJ, Ahern BJ.The veterinary yearling pre-sale repository radiographs have the potential to impact both vendor and prospective purchaser. The primary aim of this study was to determine inter-observer agreement for orthopaedic lesions identified in thoroughbred yearling repository radiographs. A secondary goal was to determine agreement when using a pre-defined risk rating classification. Unassigned: Three experienced specialist equine surgeons (2 ACVS & 1 FANZCVS) interpreted thirty repository radiographs once each for radiographic abnormalities. Each radiographic abnormality was given an associated ris...
Charles A, Peeters X, Verbrugghe C, Vandersmissen M, Evrard L, Busoni V.The Pivot Point (PP) method is commonly used in the radiographic assessment of carpal deformities in young foals, as the range of deviation may influence treatment choice. The aims of this study were to assess the intra- and interobserver reproducibility of the PP method and subjective radiographic evaluation without line drawing to establish the anatomical site responsible for carpal deviation in foals and to evaluate the agreement between these two techniques. Unassigned: Anonymized radiographs of foals presented for investigation of carpal deformity or prematurity were retrospectively and i...
Hagenbach M, Bierau J, Cruz AM, Koch C, Manso-Díaz G, Büttner K, Staszyk C, Röcken M.In the diagnostics of orthopedic diseases in the horse, diagnostic imaging often plays a decisive role. Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) imaging is used in both human and small animal medicine and becoming increasingly popular. To see whether CBCT imaging can be useful in the diagnosis of orthopedic diseases of the carpal region of the horse and to explore possible limitations we compared CBCT images with multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) images of the carpal region of equine cadaveric specimens. Unassigned: Twenty-eight forelimbs from fifteen horses, slaughtered for reasons unrelat...
Hagenbach M, Bierau J, Cruz AM, Koch C, Manso-Díaz G, Büttner K, Staszyk C, Röcken M.In the diagnostics of orthopedic diseases in the horse, diagnostic imaging often plays a decisive role. Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) imaging is used in both human and small animal medicine and becoming increasingly popular. To see whether CBCT imaging can be useful in the diagnosis of orthopedic diseases of the carpal region of the horse and to explore possible limitations we compared CBCT images with multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) images of the carpal region of equine cadaveric specimens. Unassigned: Twenty-eight forelimbs from fifteen horses, slaughtered for reasons unrelat...
Irwin-Huston JM, Bourebaba L, Bourebaba N, Tomal A, Marycz K.Musculoskeletal injuries and chronic degenerative diseases pose significant challenges in equine health, impacting performance and overall well-being. Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin (SHBG) is a glycoprotein determining the bioavailability of sex hormones in the bloodstream, and exerting critical metabolic functions, thus impacting the homeostasis of many tissues including the bone. Unassigned: In this study, we investigated the potential role of SHBG in promoting osteogenesis and its underlying mechanisms in a model of equine adipose-derived stromal cells (ASCs). An SHBG-knocked down model has b...
Khatibzadeh SM, Dahlgren LA, Caswell CC, Ducker WA, Werre SR, Bogers SH.Biofilms reduce antibiotic efficacy and lead to complications and mortality in human and equine patients with orthopedic infections. Equine bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) kill planktonic bacteria and prevent biofilm formation, but their ability to disrupt established orthopedic biofilms is unknown. Our objective was to evaluate the ability of MSC to reduce established S. aureus or E. coli biofilms in vitro. We hypothesized that MSC would reduce biofilm matrix and colony-forming units (CFU) compared to no treatment and that MSC combined with the antibiotic, amikacin sulfate...
Palomino Lago E, Ross AKC, McClellan A, Guest DJ.Bone fractures are a significant problem in Thoroughbred racehorses. The risk of fracture is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. To determine the biological processes that are affected in genetically susceptible horses, we utilised polygenic risk scoring to establish induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from horses at high and low genetic risk. RNA-sequencing on iPSC-derived osteoblasts revealed 112 genes that were significantly differentially expressed. Forty-three of these genes have known roles in bone, 27 are not yet annotated in the equine genome and 42 currently have ...
Loder RT, Walker AL, Blakemore LC.Fractures often occur due to equestrian activities with injury patterns varying by age. The purpose of this study was to investigate in detail fracture patterns and associated demographics in children due to equine activities. Methods: The US National Electronic Injury Surveillance System was queried for all injuries with the consumer product code 1239 (horseback riding) from 2000 to 2023. Those <16 years old with fractures were extracted. Statistical analyses were performed with SUDAAN 11.0.01™ software to obtain national estimates. Results: There were an estimated 101,677 patients with a f...
Orozco Lopez D, Garcia-Lopez JM, Carpenter R, Bras JJ, Richardson DW, Ortved KF.To describe the outcome of metacarpophalangeal (MCPJ) and proximal interphalangeal joint (PIPJ) arthrodesis using a locking compression-distal femur plate (LCP-DFP) in Thoroughbred racehorses with traumatic disruption of the suspensory apparatus (TDSA) at risk of PIPJ subluxation. Methods: Multicenter retrospective study. Methods: Twenty-six Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Records of Thoroughbred racehorses with TDSA that had undergone MCPJ and PIPJ arthrodesis using an LCP-DFP at three referral hospitals between 2020 and 2024 were reviewed for inclusion. The preoperative data collected incl...
CT arthrography (CTA) for evaluating cartilage defects would be beneficial in clinical practice. Since the contrast medium (CM) volume is often driven by operator experience, the aim was to evaluate the minimum volume of iodinated CM for CTA sufficient to identify iatrogenic cartilage defects in horse fetlock. The study was conducted on ex-vivo 32 distal limbs from adult horses collected at slaughter. Iatrogenic cartilage defects were arthroscopically made on fetlock, at 5 predetermined locations. Subsequently, CT scans were performed, according to the following protocol: precontrast scan, fol...
Colla S, Johnson JW, McGilvray KC, Zanotto GM, Seabaugh KA.Therapeutic shoeing for horses is used to affect the palmar angle (PA) of the distal phalanx. These changes may influence the strain on the distal interphalangeal joint collateral ligaments (DIJCLs). This cadaveric study aimed to assess DIJCL strain under varying loads and PA adjustments. Using 26 cadaver forelimbs, eight optical markers were placed on one DIJCL for strain measurement under five different loads (1000-5000 newtons) at a neutral PA, followed by PA increases of 2°, 4°, and 6° and decreases of -2° and -4°. The results indicate that increases in PA corresponded to significantl...
Carnevale L, Tagliabue T, Rabbogliatti V, Bona R, Cavallier F.Femoral head ostectomy is considered a salvage procedure in the treatment of chronic coxofemoral joint luxation in small equids. Permanent lameness of varying degrees, largely depending on the animal's weight, and potential contralateral limb deformity may occur. The purpose of this study was to report the outcome of a small equid that, despite undergoing a femoral head ostectomy for a chronic coxofemoral joint luxation, was able to return to being ridden by children and to athletic activities. Methods: An 8-year-old Shetland pony mare (180 kg) was presented for a chronic right hind limb lamen...
Schiele AR, Valletti C, Ringer SK.A Trotter mare (aged 5 years 8 months) presented with severe thoracic limb lameness 2 years after screw fixation of a third carpal bone fracture. Septic arthritis of the intermediate carpal joint necessitated three anaesthetics: two arthroscopic lavages in dorsal recumbency, followed by a computed tomography-guided screw explantation with curettage of an infected, sclerotic third carpal bone in right lateral recumbency. For each anaesthetic, maintenance was with isoflurane carried in oxygen and air, and a medetomidine constant rate infusion. Twelve days after the third anaesthetic, the horse h...
Connaughton MT, MacDonald EJ, Ireland JL, Rocchigiani G, Stack JD.Caudal wedge ostectomy has not been investigated for overriding or impinging spinous processes (SPs). Objective: To establish the feasibility of caudal wedge ostectomy and compare measures of surgical trauma and error between hypothetical caudal and cranial wedge ostectomies on SPs of different inclinations. Methods: Experimental, method comparison study. Methods: Computed tomography and caudal wedge ostectomy surgery were performed on four cadavers. Observations, technical difficulties, and surgical errors were recorded. Radiographs from 67 horses with overriding/impinging SPs were reviewed. ...
de Secondi C, Cantatore F, Marcatili M, Biggi M, Withers J, de Zani D, Zani D.Back pain is a debilitating condition hampering horses' athletic careers. Thoracic spondylosis (TS), a known cause of back pain, leads to osteophytes formation across intervertebral joints. In horses, TS is poorly reported, with anecdotal signs and response to treatment. To report clinical presentation, diagnostic imaging findings, treatment and outcome in horses with TS. The clinical records of horses diagnosed with TS between 2010 and 2023 were reviewed. Signalment, clinical and imaging findings, treatment, and outcome were analysed. Thoracic spondylosis was graded from 1 to 5. Grades, concu...
