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Topic:Ponies
Ponies are members of the Equus genus, distinguished primarily by differences in size, build, and certain physiological traits. Horses are typically larger, with a height at the withers exceeding 14.2 hands (58 inches), while ponies measure 14.2 hands or shorter. These distinctions are not solely based on size; ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall sturdier builds. Despite these differences, both ponies and horses share similar dietary needs, social behaviors, and reproductive processes. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomical, genetic, and behavioral aspects of ponies and horses, as well as their roles in various human activities and environments.
Endotoxin-induced hemodynamic and prostaglandin changes in ponies: effects of flunixin meglumine, dexamethasone, and prednisolone. Shock was induced in four groups of anesthetized ponies with an intravenous injection of Escherichia coli endotoxin [125 micrograms/kg]. Five minutes after endotoxin injection, the ponies were given no treatment (group A), flunixin meglumine (FM:1.1 mg/kg) (group B), dexamethasone (2 mg/kg) (group C), or prednisolone (10 mg/kg) (group D). Additionally, FM was given every 3 hours, and the steroids were given at 3, 9, and 24 hours following endotoxin. Hemodynamic measurements were made during the 4-hour anesthetic period. Blood samples were collected for the analysis of prostaglandins, blood che...
Clinical and hematologic variables in ponies with experimentally induced equine ehrlichial colitis (Potomac horse fever). The clinical and hematologic variables of 10 ponies with experimentally induced equine ehrlichial colitis (EEC; syn: Potomac horse fever) were studied for a 30-day period (6 ponies) or until death (4 ponies). The earliest clinical sign indicative of EEC was fever (rectal temperature exceeding 39 C). All ponies became depressed (CNS) at various times during the disease, and 90% of the ponies developed diarrhea between 9 and 15 days after infection was induced. The most significant hematologic change was an increase in plasma protein concentration after the onset of fever (P less than 0.05). The...
The lack of effect of inoculation with equine influenza vaccine on theophylline pharmacokinetics in the horse. Several studies conducted during the past few years have shown that the pharmacokinetics of a variety of drugs may be altered following viral infection or vaccination. The elimination of drugs which are extensively metabolized, such as theophylline, may be prolonged, especially following exposure to RNA viruses such as Type A influenza or similar orthomyxoviruses. The purpose of this study was to determine whether vaccination of horses with equine influenza virus affected pharmacokinetic parameters describing the distribution and elimination of intravenously administered theophylline. Three th...
Cardiopulmonary effects of continuous intravenous infusion of guaifenesin, ketamine, and xylazine in ponies. Eight ponies were anesthetized with a solution containing 50 mg of guaifenesin, 1 mg of ketamine, and 0.5 mg of xylazine X ml-1 of 5% dextrose in water. Anesthesia was induced by IV injection (1.1 ml X kg-1), followed by continuous IV infusion at 2.75 ml X kg-1 X hr-1. Heart rate, rate-pressure product, mean pulmonary artery pressure, and standard bicarbonate were not significantly changed throughout the study. Systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressures and left ventricular stroke work index were significantly decreased at 5 and 15 minutes after a bolus of the anesthetic solution was inj...
Efficacy of an oxibendazole-trichlorfon paste formulation against third stage larvae of Gasterophilus intestinalis and its safety in horses. A paste formulation containing 14.3 per cent of oxibendazole and 44 per cent of trichlorfon was administered to 33 ponies and horses. The dose rate used was equivalent to 10 mg and 30 mg/kg bodyweight, of oxibendazole and trichlorfon respectively. After treatment 25 animals passed between one and 82 third stage larvae of Gasterophilus intestinalis in their faeces. Dosing with 0.2 mg ivermectin/kg bodyweight three weeks later resulted in six animals expelling between one and four bots. The efficacy of the oxibendazole-trichlorfon paste was on average 96.2 per cent. This drug combination given t...
Effects of warfarin on blood rheology in navicular disease. A preliminary investigation has been undertaken of blood rheology in horses and ponies, its variation in navicular disease and the changes following treatment with warfarin. Erythrocyte flexibility, measured by a centrifuge packing technique, is higher in horses (30 per cent min-1) than in ponies (23.8 per cent min-1). There are corresponding differences in blood viscosity. The high erythrocyte flexibility in horses is caused by an unknown factor present in plasma. The erythrocyte flexibility in horses with navicular disease is even higher, at 38.5 per cent min-1. Treatment with warfarin reduc...
Neuromuscular and cardiovascular effects of atracurium in ponies anesthetized with halothane. Atracurium besylate, a recently developed, intermediate-duration acting, neuromuscular-blocking agent, was given to 15 halothane-anesthetized ponies to produce surgical relaxation (95% to 99% reduction of hoof twitch). All 15 ponies were given 3 injections; 8 of the 15 ponies were given 2 additional injections. Initial dosage of 0.11 +/- 0.01 mg/kg (mean +/- SD) and all subsequent injections of 0.052 mg/kg produced desired relaxation. Paralysis phase (maximum twitch reduction to 10% twitch recovery) lasted 24 +/- 5 minutes for the initial injection. Paralysis from subsequent injections lasted ...
Absorption and pharmacokinetics of phenylbutazone in Welsh Mountain ponies. The disposition of phenylbutazone (4.4 mg/kg), administered intravenously to six Welsh Mountain ponies, was described by a two-compartment open model. Pharmacokinetic parameters were not significantly different after morning dosing in comparison with afternoon dosing. When phenylbutazone (4.4 mg/kg) was administered orally to the same ponies, marked variations in time to peak concentrations were produced with different feeding schedules. When access to hay was permitted before and after dosing, the mean time to peak concentration was 13.2 +/- 1.2 h and double peaks in the plasma concentration-...
Fenbendazole in equids: further controlled tests with emphasis on activity of multiple doses against naturally occurring infections of migratory large strongyles. Two controlled tests (experiments D and E) were done to evaluate a fenbendazole (FBZ) paste dosage regimen (10 mg/kg once a day for 5 days) for activity against naturally occurring infections of migrating Strongylus vulgaris and S edentatus in the mesenteric arteries and ventral abdominal wall, respectively. Data were also obtained on other internal parasites of the gastrointestinal tract and eyes in experiment E. Eight pony yearlings were used in experiment D (4 treated and 4 nontreated) and 6 horse weanlings were used in experiment E (3 treated and 3 nontreated). Intervals, expressed as days...
An experimental study of the healing process of equine chondral and osteochondral defects. Four full thickness cartilage defects, two linear and two elliptical, and four subchondral cavity defects were created at the point of weightbearing of the medial femoral condyle in four experimental ponies. This study showed that subchondral bone cysts can develop following full thickness (cartilage only) linear cartilage defects at a weightbearing location. Subchondral bone cysts did not develop following the removal of an elliptical piece of cartilage, exposing the subchondral bone. Primary subchondral defects created in communication with the joint cavity did not heal by replacement with b...
Experimentally induced phenylbutazone toxicosis in ponies: description of the syndrome and its prevention with synthetic prostaglandin E2. Phenylbutazone (PBZ) toxicosis was induced in 9 ponies to further define the clinical and pathologic changes occurring with this syndrome. Six additional ponies were treated with PBZ and a synthetic prostaglandin E2 to determine the role of prostaglandins in the pathogenesis of PBZ toxicosis. Ponies given only PBZ exhibited CNS depression, anorexia, weight loss, diarrhea, cyanotic mucous membranes, and oral ulcers. Total serum protein concentration gradually decreased during the 10-day treatment period. Marked mucosal atrophy, focal erosions, and ulcers characterized the lesions in the aliment...
Embryonic loss in mares: Incidence and ultrasonic morphology. Pregnancy was determined by ultrasound on Days 11, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50 in 154 ponies and 27 horses. In ponies, the embryonic loss rate for Days 11 to 15 (28 154 , 18.2%) was greater (P<0.01) than for any of the subsequent five-day intervals (0% to 3.3%). There were no losses during Days 11 to 15 in horses (0 27 ), and the difference between ponies and horses was significant. The loss rates for the seven periods encompassing Days 15 to 50 were not significantly different among periods. Pseudopregnancy occurred more frequently (P<0.01) following embryonic loss after Day 20 (...
Antagonism of xylazine-pentobarbital anesthesia by yohimbine in ponies. Effects of yohimbine on xylazine-pentobarbital anesthesia were evaluated in ponies. Five minutes after the IV injection of xylazine (1.1 mg/kg of body weight), pentobarbital sodium (12.7 mg/kg, IV) and additional xylazine (2.2 mg/kg, IM) were given and produced anesthesia in 12 ponies for 64.0 +/- 16.4 minutes (mean +/- SD) as well as immobilization for 89.8 +/- 34.2 minutes. Eleven ponies were given yohimbine (0.1 mg/kg, IV) 50 minutes after pentobarbital dosing. In these 11 ponies, durations of anesthesia and immobilization were shorter, 52.0 +/- 1.4 and 65.5 +/- 14.8 minutes, respectively. ...
Efficacy of ivermectin against Dictyocaulus arnfieldi in ponies. The efficacy of orally administered ivermectin against induced Dictyocaulus arnfieldi infection was evaluated in a controlled study comprising 12 yearling ponies. Treatment with ivermectin paste, at a dose rate of 200 micrograms/kg bodyweight orally once, was 100 per cent effective against both adult and immature or inhibited stages of the horse lungworm. Similar control of second and third instars of Gastrophilus intestinalis was observed and no nematode eggs were present in faeces from seven to 15 days after treatment when the study was terminated.
Variant specific opsonization of Trypanosoma evansi measured by luminol-dependent chemiluminescence. Using luminol-dependent chemiluminescence (LCL), the specificity of antibodies to variable antigen type (VAT)-populations of Trypanosoma evansi was studied in four infected ponies. Trypanosomes of each wave of parasitemia were isolated and multiplied in irradiated mice. Their opsonization by serum collected during the infection was investigated with LCL and results for isolated VAT-populations are shown in the paper. Antibodies specific to each VAT-population were first found three days after the maximum of a parasitemic wave. There was no cross reactivity between different VAT-populations. LC...
Effects of repeated endotoxin injections on prostanoids, hemodynamics, endothelial cells, and survival in ponies. The objectives of this study were to determine the pathophysiological effects of increasing amounts of endotoxin administered intraperitoneally (IP) for 24 hr at which time an intravenous (IV) injection of endotoxin was given. The ability of flunixin meglumine (FM), a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug with antiprostaglandin activity, to provide protective effects was also determined. Eight ponies were divided into two groups of four ponies each; one group (untreated) received endotoxin only and the other group (treated) received endotoxin while being treated with flunixin. Hemodynamic and ser...
Dosage requirement of pancuronium in halothane-anesthetized ponies: a comparison of cumulative and single-dose administration. Cumulative vs single-bolus administration of pancuronium was studied in halothane-anesthetized ponies. Dosage levels were determined by giving small increments (0.01 to 0.04 mg/kg of body weight) until the desired relaxation occurred (0.125 +/- 0.038 mg/kg for 90% to 99% reduction of prerelaxant twitch height), then an additional 0.037 +/- 0.024 mg/kg for obliteration of twitch response. The dosage level defined by cumulative administration was then administered as a single bolus 2 more times, once on each of 2 days. Dosage requirements for the 2 methods correlated well. The difference in dura...
Equine cell-mediated immune response to Rhodococcus (Corynebacterium) equi. A lymphocyte blastogenic assay was developed to serve as an in vitro correlate of cell-mediated immunity to Rhodococcus (Corynebacterium) equi (R equi) in the equine species. Lymphocytes obtained from a group of experimental ponies showed no response in cell culture to R equi heat extract or lysozyme extract antigens. Ponies were assigned to groups for experimental inoculation. Three ponies were inoculated subcutaneously with live R equi, 3 were given live R equi by intranasal and intratracheal routes, and 4 ponies were left untreated. Lymphocytes from all inoculated ponies had a mitogenic res...
Controlled tests of activity of ivermectin against natural infections of migratory large strongyles and other internal parasites of equids. Four controlled tests (experiments A, B, C, and D) were conducted in naturally infected yearling equids to evaluate activity of ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg IM) against migrating Strongylus vulgaris and S edentatus in mesenteric arteries and ventral abdominal wall, respectively. Data were also obtained on activity against other internal parasites of the gastrointestinal tract and eyeworms. The type and number of equids in the experiments were as follows: experiment A-3 ponies, 2 treated and 1 non-treated; experiment B-4 mixed-bred horses, 2 treated and 2 nontreated; experiment C-5 mixed-bred horses, ...
Microneutralization test in PK(15) cells for assay of antibodies to louping ill virus. A microneutralization test in PK(15) cells was developed to measure the neutralizing antibody response of a group of ponies experimentally challenged with louping ill virus. Viral cytopathic effect was maximal after 6 days of incubation, at which point titration endpoints were clear-cut and readily determinable. The assay compared favorably with the mouse neutralization test for accuracy and ease of performance.
Bone strain in the equine tibia: inertia as a cause of the presupport peak. Strain tracings obtained from the tibial cortex of walking ponies reveal peaks in the principal tension and compression strains occurring immediately before and after the support phase. Evidence is presented that the presupport peak is caused by inertial forces.
Bone strain in the equine tibia: an in vivo strain gauge analysis. Rosette strain gauges were bonded to the cranial, caudal, and medial surfaces of the tibia in the middiaphyseal region of 6 adult ponies. While the ponies were walking, the cranial side was mainly subjected to tension, and the caudal side, to compression. The compression strain on the caudal side was 1.5 times greater than the tension strain on the cranial side. None of these principal strains was aligned along the long axis of the bone; both deviated laterally from the long axis. On the medial surface, the principal strain deviated caudally about 40 degrees from the long axis. From analysis o...
Trials of an inactivated equid herpesvirus 1 vaccine: challenge with a subtype 2 virus. Serological responses following two and three doses of an inactivated equid herpesvirus 1 ( EHV -1) vaccine containing a subtype 1 strain were examined in yearling ponies. Complement fixing antibody responses were significantly higher against the subtype 1 vaccine strain than against a subtype 2 virus. Complement fixing antibody responses declined rapidly after the second dose of vaccine and had returned to almost pre-vaccination levels eight weeks after the second dose of vaccine. Complement fixing antibody titres to the heterologous subtype 2 strain increased after each successive dose of va...
Arachidonic acid metabolites in carrageenin-induced equine inflammatory exudate. The presence of cyclooxygenase products of arachidonic acid metabolism in carrageenin-induced inflammatory exudate was investigated in ponies using two models. In the first model, an inflammatory response was stimulated by injecting carrageenin into subcutaneously implanted polypropylene tissue cages and exudates were collected at five predetermined times between 3 and 48 h. In the second model, exudates were harvested at 6, 12 and 24 h from carrageenin-impregnated polyester sponges which had also been inserted beneath the skin. Prostaglandin (PG) E2, thromboxane (TX) B2 and the stable breakdo...
Effect of monensin on the morphology of mitochondria in rodent and equine striated muscle. Heart, diaphragm, and rear limb muscle from ponies and rats treated with monensin were examined by light and electron microscopy. In both species, mitochondrial aberrations were observed in selected muscle cells. The aberrations consisted of loss of matrix substance (vacuolization) usually accompanied by swelling. Vacuolated mitochondria were characterized by an almost total loss of matrix substance with retention of the rudimentary cristae form. In ponies, most vacuolated mitochondria were observed in heart muscle though some also were found in the diaphragm. In rats, most vacuolated mitochon...
Investigations of the in situ bag technique and a comparison of the fermentation in heifers, sheep, ponies and rabbits. Fiber fermentation using the in situ bag technique was studied in a hay-fed cow. Entry of fine particles into bags of varying pore size, the effect of sample size, rumen contractions, bag porosity and rumen contraction (bags suspended in vitro or in situ) and obstruction of liquid flow through the bag cloth were investigated (Exp. 1). In Exp. 2 fiber degradation in vitro and in situ with 5- and 37-micron pore size bags was measured utilizing six fistulated heifers (four large: 610 kg and two small: 243 kg), two sheep and two goats (30 kg), three ponies (130 kg) and four rabbits (3.2 kg). Degra...
Effects of toxic doses of phenylbutazone in ponies. Toxic doses of phenylbutazone (10 mg/kg of body weight) were administered to 10 ponies once daily for 14 days. Clinical signs of toxicosis similar to those seen in other species included CNS depression, anorexia, oral ulcers, and soft feces. Six ponies died in 7 to 20 days; 1 pony was euthanatized during an acute abdominal crisis; and 3 ponies survived the study. At necropsy, the major lesions were oral and gastrointestinal ulcerations and renal changes.
Disseminated intravascular coagulation in experimental intestinal strangulation obstruction in ponies. Total strangulation obstruction of the caudal part of the jejunum was induced in 3 groups (each of 3 ponies) for 2, 4, and 6 hours. Coagulation tests which included blood platelet counts, prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time, activated coagulation time, plasma fibrinogen level, and fibrin/fibrinogen degradation products assay were performed at specified time intervals for 1 week or until death of the experimental ponies. Another 3 ponies (sham-operated) were similarly treated, except that intestinal strangulation obstruction (ISO) was not induced. Necropsy was done on ponies...
